Abstract
Background: Few studies have explored the complex gene-by-prenatal environment-by-early postnatal environment interactions that underlie the development of attentional competence. Here, we examined if variation in dopamine-related genes interacts with prenatal adversity to influence toddler attentional competence and whether this influence is buffered by early positive maternal behavior.Methods: From the Maternal Adversity, Vulnerability and Neurodevelopment cohort, 134 participants (197 when imputing missing data) had information on prenatal adversity (prenatal stressful life events, prenatal maternal depressive symptoms, and birth weight), five dopamine-related genes (DAT1, DRD4, DRD2, COMT, BDNF), observed maternal parenting behavior at 6 months and parent-rated toddler attentional competence at 18 and 24 months. The Latent Environmental and Genetic Interaction (LEGIT) approach was used to examine genes-by-prenatal environment-by-postnatal environment interactions while controlling for sociodemographic factors and postnatal depression.Results: Our hypothesis of a three-way interaction between prenatal adversity, dopamine-related genes, and early maternal parenting behavior was not confirmed. However, consistent two-way interactions emerged between prenatal adversity and dopamine-related genes; prenatal adversity and maternal parenting behavior, and dopamine-related genes and maternal parenting behavior in relation to toddler attentional competence. Significant interaction effects were driven by the DAT1, COMT, and BDNF genotypes; prenatal stressful life events; maternal sensitivity, tactile stimulation, vocalization, and infant-related activities.Conclusions: Multiple dopamine-related genes affected toddler attentional competence and they did so in interaction with prenatal adversity and the early rearing environment, separately. Effects were already visible in young children. Several aspects of early maternal parenting have been identified as potential targets for intervention.
Highlights
There is increasing evidence that an adverse prenatal environment contributes to the risk of developing attentiondeficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD; Banerjee et al, 2007; Thapar and Rutter, 2009)
Significant gene-environment correlations were observed between dopamine receptor D2 (DRD2) and birth weight (r(134) = −0.16, p = 0.02) and between DRD4 and prenatal depressive symptoms (r(134) = −0.15, p = 0.04) and vocalization (r(134) = 0.15, p = 0.03)
In a prospectively followed prenatal cohort, we examined the complex interplay between three important forces of attention development: 1) genetic variations in the dopaminergic pathway, prenatal adversity, and the earliest rearing environment
Summary
There is increasing evidence that an adverse prenatal environment contributes to the risk of developing attentiondeficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD; Banerjee et al, 2007; Thapar and Rutter, 2009). Much less is known about the role of prenatal maternal depression in the development of offspring ADHD symptoms. This is important given that approximately 40% of mothers of children with ADHD have a history of major depression, making them 2–3 times more likely to be depressed than women in the general population (Chronis-Tuscano et al, 2003; Kessler et al, 2006). In the present study we capture prenatal adversity in three important ways: through the number of stressful life events experienced by women during pregnancy, maternal depressive symptoms during pregnancy, and birth weight of children. We examined if variation in dopamine-related genes interacts with prenatal adversity to influence toddler attentional competence and whether this influence is buffered by early positive maternal behavior
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