The impact of collateral damage: Unravelling psychological mechanisms in the context of war and conflict: A literature review

Psychosocial intervention effects on adaptation, disease course and biobehavioral processes in cancer

One of the main subjects in todays research is brand loyalty. The researcher finds that as spending power continues to grow in the consumer market, brand loyalty is crucial for all stages of brand development. However, there is a lack of unified explanation for the issue of various factors influencing brand loyalty. Therefore, the research topic of this paper is to explore the influence of emotional factors, social factors and cognitive factors on brand loyalty. This papers research methodology is as follows. Firstly, this paper adopts the literature review method. Secondly, this paper analyzes the data collected from different literature on the influencing factors of brand loyalty. In conclusion, the study shows that good emotional factors like brand love are beneficial to brand loyalty. In addition, good social and cognitive factors like brand campaigns are also advantageous to brand loyalty. Good emotional, social and cognitive factors are significant in the loyalty that exists between brands and their customers As a result, brands need to manage every element and detail. Facilitating customer loyalty and brand loyalty should take emotional, social and cognitive factors in account.

.The purpose of the current study was to understand the association between bullying experiences (i.e., bullying, victimization, and defending) and social, emotional, and cognitive factors. The social factor was social skills (i.e., empathy, assertion, cooperation, responsibility); the emotional factor was emotional difficulties (i.e., personal adjustment, internalizing problems, school problems), and the cognitive factor was executive functioning skills (i.e., self-monitoring, inhibitory control, flexibility, emotional regulation). Data on students' perceptions of their own social skills, emotional difficulties, and bullying role behavior were collected from 246 sixth- through eighth-grade students. Teachers provided reports of students' executive functioning skills. Results indicated that (a) emotional difficulties were significantly and positively associated with victimization for boys and girls, (b) emotional difficulties were significantly and positively associated with defending for girls, (c) executive functioning was significantly and negatively associated with defending for boys, and (d) social skills were significantly and positively related to defending behavior for boys and girls. These results emphasize the importance of examining the social, emotional, and cognitive factors associated with bullying. Social skills and emotional and executive functioning appear to vary systematically across bullying roles and should be considered when developing targeted social–emotional interventions to stop bullying, increase defending, and support victims or those at risk for victimization.

This research examined the support for international military interventions as a function of the political system and the public opinion of the target country. In two experiments, we informed participants about a possible military intervention by the international community towards a sovereign country whose government planned to use military force against a secessionist region. They were then asked whether they would support this intervention whilst being reminded that it would cause civilian deaths. The democratic or nondemocratic political system of the target country was experimentally manipulated, and the population support for its belligerent government policy was either assessed (Experiment 1) or manipulated (Experiment 2). Results showed greater support for the intervention when the target country was nondemocratic, as compared to the democratic and the control conditions, but only when its population supported the belligerent government policy. Support for the external intervention was low when the target country was democratic, irrespective of national public opinion. These findings provide support for the democracy-as-value hypothesis applied to international military interventions, and suggest that civilian deaths (collateral damage) are more acceptable when nondemocratic populations support their government’s belligerent policy.

Members of armed forces are sent off to war to kill enemy combatants. They are not sent off to kill civilians. Nonetheless, modern wars invariably result in far more civilian deaths than military deaths. This article examines the collateral damage rule, one of the central operational rules regulating the conduct of hostilities, that essentially only permits civilian casualties when they are incidental to an attack on a legitimate military target. The rule is explored in light of the changing nature of warfare over the last two centuries including the shifting ratios of military to civilian war-related deaths. The article ultimately questions the continuing validity of this rule when, in recent decades, the overall statistics for war-related deaths reveal that civilian fatalities are considerably greater then military deaths. The collateral damage rule is meant to offer protection to civilians in war time and to give content to the principle of distinction in contexts where military and civilian targets are interwoven. That statement reflects the usual assessment of the collateral damage rule but this article asks whether that assessment simply tricks us into thinking that ethical military advisors, by following the rule, will, in fact, avoid all but incidental damage to civilians. If the many and varied studies on the ratios of civilian to military war-related deaths reveal disproportionate civilian deaths (as they do) and if the many and varied epidemiological studies reveal war-related civilian displacement, disease, deprivation, and famine (which they do), the article asks whether the collateral damage rule has become simply an organized deceit to persuade us that when we condone the combatant’s privilege (soldiers being permitted to kill enemy soldiers) we are not signing the death warrant for civilians, except “incidentally.” The article will argue that in the context of modern warfare, the collateral damage rule can never accomplish what it purports to do, except in the most temporarily restricted sense. It will then explore what should be the fate of a legal rule, in this case at the heart of the laws of armed conflict, that cannot, by the nature of the context in which the rule is operative, be effective. Trying to determine when there is sufficient armed violence to constitute armed conflict or war is difficult and varies depending on what is being studied. Classifying the different types of armed conflict is controversial and changes depending on the focus of research. Quantifying military and civilian deaths in armed conflict presents multiple classification problems and much disputed or unavailable data. Nonetheless, despite all of these difficulties, it is possible to discern significant trends within the last two centuries. This article will first examine the changes that have taken place, over roughly the last two centuries, in the types of wars that occur. It will next focus on the shifting ratio of military to civilian war-related deaths during this period, noting that we now live in an era where wars result in a hugely disproportionate loss of civilian lives. The final part of the article will trace the history and applicability of the collateral damage rule, also known as the proportionality rule. The article then brings together the data on the changes in the types of wars fought and the shift from mainly military to mainly civilian war-related deaths and asks what continuing regulatory effect the collateral damage rule can be expected to exert when the data on war-related deaths will inevitably mean that the rule has utterly failed to achieve its purpose. The final part of the article makes a few modest suggestions that may, in some measure, help fulfill the purpose of the collateral damage rule.

The article focuses on the civil responsibility of Germany for the death of Afghan civilians caused by an airstrike in the region of Kunduz. The attack was ordered by an officer of the German Army, Colonel Klein, and carried out by U. S. Air Force pilots against two gas tanker trucks hijacked by the Taliban. While the General Public Prosecutor investigated the case and in April of 2010 decided to terminate the investigations against Colonel Klein, civil lawsuits filed by the victims and their relatives against the Federal Republic of Germany are still pending. The investigation committee of the German Parliament published its final report about the airstrike in northern Afghanistan in the end of 2011 and concluded that probably more than 80 innocent civilians were killed by the bombs. Furthermore the investigation committee discovered new facts, not mentioned in the final note of the General Public Prosecutor. These include new findings about the informant of the German Army who had declared that there had been only »Taliban« around the tanker trucks and no »civilians«. Actually the informant had not been on site and got his information only from unnamed »subcontacts«. He was not adequately interrogated, although his allegation had been the main reason for the assumption of Colonel Klein that the airstrike would eliminate only fighters of the insurgents. We argue that the airstrike violated International Humanitarian Law (IHL), the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) and fundamental rights of the German Constitution. The three norm complexes are simultaneously applicable during contingency operations of the German Army. First the airstrike caused a violation of IHL. There has been a foreseeable collateral damage excessive in relation to the concrete and direct military advantage anticipated to result from the attack (Art. 51 (5) (b) of the Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949 – AP/I). In addition the requirement to take feasible precautions in attack, including early warning (Art. 57 (2) (a) of AP/I), has not been respected. Moreover the German Army violated Rules of Engagement (RoE) applicable to the mission of the International Security Assistance Forces (ISAF) in Afghanistan. Although RoE are primarily internal norms, deviations could lead to a reversal of burden of proof in civil litigations. Therefore the violating state has to proof that the disregard of the RoE didnt cause a violation of the precautionary principle of IHL. Secondly the airstrike caused a violation of the right to life (Art. 2 (1) of ECHR). There has not been a situation which could justify the deprivation of civilian lives (Art. 2 (2) of ECHR), namely an actual armed attack against the German Army. Furthermore the standard of precautionary measures required by the jurisprudence of the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) which overlaps with IHL standard was not sufficiently fulfilled. Finally Germany has failed to act quickly to investigate the deadly attack. Third the killing of innocent civilians violated the right to life guaranteed in Art. 2 (2) of the German Constitution. Until now there is no legal base for deadly force used by the German Army in contingency operations required by the Constitution. Due to the Federal Constitutional Court the killing of innocent civilians causes a violation of human dignity without any possibility of justification because the victims are solely treated like objects, ignoring the subjectivity of any human being. Therefore it can be concluded that any military attack causing the loss of a civilian life constitutes a violation of fundamental rights of the German Constitution, independent of the proportionality of the collateral damage in regard of the expected military advantage.

Genocide is not only a problem of mass death, but also of how, as a relatively new idea and law, it organizes and distorts thinking about civilian destruction. Taking the normative perspective of civilian immunity from military attack, A. Dirk Moses argues that the implicit hierarchy of international criminal law, atop which sits genocide as the 'crime of crimes', blinds us to other types of humanly caused civilian death, like bombing cities, and the 'collateral damage' of missile and drone strikes. Talk of genocide, then, can function ideologically to detract from systematic violence against civilians perpetrated by governments of all types. The Problems of Genocide contends that this violence is the consequence of 'permanent security' imperatives: the striving of states, and armed groups seeking to found states, to make themselves invulnerable to threats.

ABSTRACTPain neuroscience education (PNE) is increasingly used as part of a physical therapy treatment in patients with chronic pain. A thorough clinical biopsychosocial assessment is recommended prior to PNE to allow proper explanation of the neurophysiology of pain and the biopsychosocial interactions in an interactive and patient-centered manner. However, without clear guidelines, clinicians are left wondering how a biopsychosocial assessment should be administered. Therefore, we provided a practical guide, based on scientific research and clinical experience, for the biopsychosocial assessment of patients with chronic pain in physiotherapy practice. The purpose of this article is to describe the use of the Pain – Somatic factors – Cognitive factors – Emotional factors – Behavioral factors – Social factors – Motivation – model (PSCEBSM-model) during the intake, as well as a pain analysis sheet. This model attempts to clearly establish what the dominant pain mechanism is (predominant nociceptive, neuropathic, or non-neuropathic central sensitization pain), as well as to assess the provoking and perpetuating biopsychosocial factors in patients with chronic pain. Using this approach allows the clinician to specifically classify patients and tailor the plan of care, including PNE, to individual patients.

United States officials argued during America’s post-9-/11 wars that the US took every precaution to prevent unintended civilian death and injury — known as collateral damage — due to US military operations. Yet, during the first years of the wars, officials accepted the inevitability of the harm, and tens of thousands of civilians were killed and injured by the US and its allies. The book explores moral responsibility for three kinds of collateral damage incidents. Accidents were unforeseen and sometimes unforeseeable, and arguably they were comparatively rare. More numerous were systemic collateral damage deaths, the foreseeable consequence of rules of engagement, weapons choices, standard operating procedures and military doctrine. Proportionality/double effect collateral damage is foreseeable, and foreseen, yet anticipated military advantages are said to excuse this unintentional killing. Both systemic collateral damage, and proportionality/double effect collateral damage are produced in part by expansive and permissive conceptions of military necessity. The other causes of systemic collateral damage are found in the organization of warmaking — the institutionalized rules, procedures, training, and stresses of war. Depending on choices that are made at the organizational and command level, the likelihood of causing civilian casualties may rise or fall. When those factors, including beliefs about military necessity, change the incidence of collateral damage also changes. This book offers a new way to think about moral agency and accountability. The dominant paradigm of legal and moral responsibility in war stresses both intention and individual accountability. Yet that framework is inadequate for cases of systemic and proportionality/double effect collateral damage because the causes of those deaths and injuries lie at the organizational level — where doctrine, tactics, and weapons are decided. The author supplements theories of individual agency and accountability with a theory of collective moral responsibility, treating organizations as imperfect moral agents. The US military exercised moral agency when it began, mid-way through the Post-9/11 wars, to change its organizational procedures in order reduce collateral damage deaths. The book offers ways to increase political and public moral responsibility for conduct in war.

Recent studies highlight the effect of cognitive factors on academic achievement, ignoring motivational, emotional, and social factors. This provides the background for the present study, a meta-analysis on the relationship between academic achievement and motivational factors (motivation, self-concept, and self-esteem), emotional factors (emotional intelligence, emotional competence, and emotional well-being), and social factors (social intelligence, social competence, and social skills) in children aged 6–12 years (37 samples, n = 15,777). The methodology based on the PRISMA protocols was applied: phases of inclusion and exclusion of articles, analysis of effect size, heterogeneity, publication bias, and, finally, meta-regressions and moderation analysis. The results showed a moderate positive effect size (0.321) for motivational and social factors (0.210) and a small positive effect size (0.172) for emotional factors. The moderating effects of age (65% on social factors) and geographical area (52% on motivational factors, 17% on emotional factors, and 76% on social factors) were studied. These results highlight the importance of motivational and social factors regarding academic achievement. In addition, along with the moderating effect of age, that of geographical area emerges strongly given the diversity of contexts studied. Our results highlight the importance that these factors have on academic performance and, therefore, the need to design school plans that address the correct development of these variables.

Empathy is the ability to read other's mind and understand their intentions. This paper examines the psychometric properties of the Brazilian-Portuguese version of a short form of the empathy quotient (EQ, 15 items). The EQ-15 was administered to 237 participants from the general population from João Pessoa, Brazil. Confirmatory factor analyses supported the tripartite model with cognitive, emotional and social empathy factors. In line with other studies, gender differences were only observed for the first two factors, with female participants scoring higher on both, which suggests that the social factor might not constitute a truly dimension of empathy. Strong evidence for convergent and discriminant validity was only observed for the cognitive factor. The poor psychometric parameters of the emotional and social factors are argued to reflect the complexity and contrasting ideas of their items. The possibility of elaborating specific items for the emotional and social factors is also discussed.

The article considers the specific aspects of social and psychological adaptation of the military personnel after returning to civilian life. The authors of the article describe the psychological characteristics and ability of the military to socialize after the war. A number of methods were used to assess the psychological state of the military. The researchers define the social and psychological adaptation of military personnel as the result of changes in social, psychological, ethical, economic and demographic relations, as well as the adjustment of individuals to the existing social environment. The peculiar features of this adaptation are active conscious participation, the impact of human activity on the environment and the results of the changes in response to social context. The study was conducted at the «Tysovets» sports and military base among the servicemen aged 25 to 45. The researchers used various methods to analyze social and psychological adaptation, including the Adaptability-200 questionnaire for studying neuropsychological stability and resistance to deviant behavior, the 16-factor R. Kettell questionnaire for personality analysis, the Leongard-Schmiszek questionnaire for diagnosing personality accentuation, and a survey to determine the readiness of military personnel to adapt to the conditions of everyday civilian life. The results of the study showed that military personnel demonstrate a high level of neuropsychological stability and easily adapt to new challenges. They are not concerned about changes in their professional activities and adapt to them with ease. However, some individuals show signs of addictive and delinquent behavior. The analysis of the Kettell methodology revealed that many of them have a high degree of withdrawal and a low history of socializing with civilians. They have difficulty establishing contact with others and often categorize people as «friends» and «strangers». The veterans also demonstrated the low level of tolerance to frustration and irritability that can lead to neurotic symptoms. The Leongard-Schmiszek methodology proved that many military personnel have an anxiety type of personality accentuation, accompanied by severe agitation and restlessness. This can affect their ability to regulate their emotions and social relationships. Overall, the study highlights the importance of psychological support and assistance to veterans in the process of their social and psychological adaptation after returning from war. Keywords: adaptation, military personnel, psychological characteristics, social and psychological adaptation.

To identify the integrated impact of psychological, social, and clinical factors onto the quality of life (QOL) in the patients with Crohn's disease. Two hundred twenty two out-patients participated in a cross-sectional questionnaire survey in which health-related QOL (SF36), disease-specific symptoms, psychological adaptation and social support were measured. Multi-variable regression models were used to test the impact of clinical, psychological, and social factors on the patient's QOL and symptom reports. The patient's symptoms and health-related QOL were significantly associated not only with disease activities, but also with the patient's psychological adaptation and the quality of social support. The results strongly suggest that a psychoeducational intervention may be useful in combination with a clinical intervention to improve the patient's QOL.

Pain is influenced by multiple emotional and cognitive factors. This paper provides an overview of the most important emotional and cognitive factors affecting pain, which has been confirmed in experimental and clinical studies. Emotional factors that increase pain perception include anxiety, depression, and other negative emotions. Positive emotions lead to a decrease in pain. Cognitive factors such as attention, expectation anxiety, and pain assessment can both increase and decrease pain sensations, depending on their specific focus. It becomes clear that pain is not just a reflection of nociceptive irritation, but also a feeling formed by psychological factors that can be individual in each case.

BACKGROUND: The ability of a person in the process of active activity to adapt to changing environmental conditions is largely related to his creative potential. Creativity, like other physical and mental personality traits, has its own genetic base, which has not been sufficiently studied to date. Certain genes involved in this process are regularly described. The search for an association with new candidate genes for the creative potential of practically healthy, young respondents selected for work in the extreme conditions of the North is extremely important in the selection of people for work and service in difficult conditions. AIM: Search for the correlation of candidate gene polymorphism and the psychological state of the examined. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The psychological block of the pilot study included determining the degree of creativity, as well as the degree of tension of key psychological defense mechanisms. All the techniques used within its framework are part of the standard psychodiagnostic tools that have been tested in domestic conditions. Genotyping was performed by real-time PCR, determining the corresponding alleles of candidate genes, and then the data were compared by the method of analysis of variance. RESULTS: As candidate genes, we selected the angiotensin-converting enzyme gene, the serotonin 2A receptor gene, the neurotrophic factor BDNF, and alpha-actinin-3. According to the literature, all these genes are associated with the ability to adapt and / or psychotic states, which suggests their possible connection with creativity. The most interesting results are associated with the polymorphism of the BDNF gene: respondents with the BDNF Val/Val genotype are characterized by the maximum level of creativity and the minimum level of intensity of basic psychological defenses and coping strategies by types of distancing, as well as seeking social support. On the contrary, their maximum level is associated with the Met/Met genotype. Thus, it has been reliably shown that optimal adaptation to extreme external conditions is most likely to be ensured genetically by the presence of the Val / Val genotype, and psychologically by enhanced use of creative ability. The respondents with the ACTN3 RX genotype (with increased cold resistance) are characterized by a minimum level of creativity, and those with the RR genotype its maximum level. It is also shown that respondents with the ACE DD genotype are characterized by a minimum level of creativity. There were no associations with creativity with the serotonin 2A receptor gene polymorphism. CONCLUSIONS: The totality of the results obtained as a result of this pilot study allows us to consider a systematic study of creative ability and its molecular biological correlates to be correct and constructive for the development of a fundamental problem of the interaction of molecular biological and psychological mechanisms that provide active adaptation, as well as very expedient for solving the complex. scientific and applied tasks for the selection and correction of the state of persons directed to work in special and / or extreme conditions.