The Impact of Agricultural Extension on Farm Production in Resettlement Areas of Zimbabwe

Structural Adjustment and Economic Efficiency of Rice Farmers in Northern Ghana

This paper reviews various studies which have provided a description and possible explanation to patterns of innovation adoption in the agricultural sector. The survey points out that the tendency of many studies to consider innovation adoption in dichotomous terms (adoption/nonadoption) may not be appropriate in many cases where the actual decisions are defined over a more continuous range. More attention needs to be given to the socio-cultural and institutional environment in area studies so that their interrelation with economic factors affecting adoption can be inferred. The presence of several interrelated innovations is another aspect that needs to be considered more carefully in future research, since a number of simultaneous decisions may be involved. Furthermore, the possibility of regular sequential patterns in adopting components of a new technological package should be specifically addressed in future studies. Finally, the impact of differential adoption rates on land holding distribution merits attention in future research.

Development strategies increasingly emphasize agricultural development, employment, and equity; it is therefore important to examine the role of education in light of these new emphases. The purpose of this paper is to synthesize the conclusions of a number of studies of the effect of a farmer's educational level and exposure to extension services on his productivity. Eighteen studies conducted in low-income countries provided 37 sets of farm data that allow a statistical estimation of the effect of education. The overall conclusion of this paper is that farm productivity increases as a result of a farmer's completing at least 4 additional years of elementary education rather than none. Also, the effects of education were much more likely to be positive in modernizing agricultural environments than in traditional ones.

Aims: The liberalization of the agricultural sector has facilitated the advent of multitude stakeholders with varied profiles involved in the provision of numerous services to agriculture. This study analyzes the advisory and extension services that support the provision of agricultural inputs in two Divisions of the Western Region of Cameroon (Mifi and Menoua).
 Study Design and Methodology: These areas are home to about 60% of the private agricultural input distributors involved in the provision of agricultural advisory and extension services within the region Data collected by questionnaire and interview guide were carried out with 62 agricultural inputs sellers with input shops on the one hand, and 7 managers of a number of organizations involved in the provision of agricultural services on the other hand.
 
 Results: private agricultural input providers use several agricultural advisory and extension approaches: 42% among them use agricultural extension approach, while 32% use advice to the family farm approach, 21% use organizational capacity building advice and 5%, demand driven approaches. The terms for providing these agricultural extension and advisory services depend on the rationalities of each of these providers. Some agricultural extension and advisory services providers (NGOs, CIGs) promote agroecology through the diffusion of organic inputs, while others promote conventional agriculture through the popularization of synthetic chemical inputs. Access to services by beneficiaries are either paid-offerings or free-offerings. Findings also reveal that in some cases, the actions of some of these providers in the field are intertwined and lead to a collaborative relationship, while in other cases providers work completely compartmentalized leading to negative effects and low performance of the local agricultural extension and advisory system.
 Conclusion: The advent of private providers has increased the number of actors with various profiles leading to potential advantages (e.g., includes access to agricultural information). Yet these potentials have not yet been fully valorized in the provision of agricultural advisory and extension services to farmers. And the needs of farmers have only been partially met. It would be equally crucial to factor climate risks as integral part of extension and advisory services.

The impact of modern agricultural extension services on smallholder farm productivity and sustainability in India, focusing on various dimensions such as farm productivity, sustainability, and social outcomes. Agricultural extension services are crucial for disseminating knowledge and technology from research institutions to farmers' fields, thus playing a pivotal role in improving agricultural productivity and promoting sustainable practices. Despite their significance, the effectiveness of these services varies across regions due to financial constraints, cultural and educational barriers, and inconsistent policy support. It explores case studies and statistical data to illustrate the changes in farm outputs and trends in productivity enhancements linked to the adoption of modern farming technologies and practices facilitated by extension services. It also addresses the role of these services in fostering sustainable agricultural practices, enhancing environmental sustainability through improved soil health and water use, and contributing to economic sustainability by increasing cost-effectiveness and profitability. Furthermore, the review highlights the social impact of extension services, particularly in empowering women and youth, fostering community development, and enhancing social equity among farmers. Despite the positive impacts, the review identifies significant challenges that hinder the effective implementation of extension services and outlines opportunities for improvement. Innovations such as integrating digital tools and community-led extension programs are discussed as strategies to overcome existing challenges and enhance the efficiency and reach of these services. It concludes with recommendations for policy enhancements, the potential for international cooperation, and future research directions aimed at better understanding and improving the delivery and impact of agricultural extension services in India. This comprehensive analysis not only sheds light on the current state of agricultural extension in India but also serves as a guide for policymakers, researchers, and practitioners aiming to optimize the benefits of such services for smallholder farmers.

In Tanzania, agriculture sector is known for employing more than 70% of the total population. Agriculture sector faces many challenges including climate change. Climate change causes low productivity in agriculture; low productivity is caused due to poor implementation of agricultural policies and strategies. This poor implementation of policies has also caused many farmers to be not competent in climate change adaptation. Over the years, provisions of agricultural advice and extension were provided by various approaches, including training and visit extension, participatory approaches, and farmers’ field schools. However, provision of agricultural advisory and extension service is inefficient. Also, in most cases the usage of most agricultural innovations and technologies developed is limited. A literature review indicates that the main reasons given by Tanzanian farmers for not using improved technology are not lack of knowledge or skill, but rather that the technologies do not contribute towards improvements (e.g., the technologies are not profitable or they imply to high risk). Thus, agricultural extension service needs to be geared towards teaching farmers how to develop innovative and cost effective technologies that are contextualized. Limited numbers of agricultural extension staff and less interactivity of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs), such as radio and television, have been mentioned to be among the factors limiting the provision of agricultural advisory and extension services to the majority of farmers in Tanzania. The advancements in ICTs have brought new opportunities for enhancing access to agricultural advisory and extension service for climate change adaptation. In Tanzania, farmers and other actors access agricultural information from various sources such as agricultural extension workers and use of various databases from Internet Services Providers. Also there are different web – and mobile – based farmers’ advisory information systems to support conventional agricultural extension service. These systems are producing bulk amounts of data which makes it difficult for different stakeholders to make an informed decision after data analysis. This calls for the need to develop a tool for data visualization in order to understand hidden patterns from massive data. In this study, a semi-automated text classification was developed to determine the frequently asked keywords from a web and mobile based farmers’ advisory system called UshauriKilimo after being in use for more than 2 years by more than 700 farmers.

Agricultural extension services that are currently following the decentralization era require a participatory extension approach in line the needs of farmers in each region. This mixed-method study looked at the condition of agricultural extension governance and services at local level which characterized by agricultural resource based on economic development, namely Purworejo Regency, Central Java Province, in responding to problems in the agricultural sector and extension institutions. The research results show that the governance of extension services in Purworejo Regency faces the issue of lack of capacity building o extension agents with excessive workload and minimal staff. In contrast, extension agents have a pile of tasks that must be done individually, without inadequate support on facilities and sufficient budget to support extension services to farmers. The impact of climate change, such as an increase in pests and plant diseases and water crisis, have become major problems in the agricultural sector. This study suggests a policy and program to build extension agents' capacity and a more organized governance of extension institutions.

The U.S. Cooperative Extension System (USCES) faces some serious challenges. Its relevancy and necessity are under continuous scrutiny as the number of farmers and the political power of the agricultural vote diminishes. These challenges provide an excellent opportunity to explore alternative sources of funding for the USCES and methods of technology transfer to farmers. Our objectives were to review the process and results of commercialization (the transition to user-paid consultancy) and privatization (the transition from government to privately owened) of New Zealand's agricultural extension service. Full commercialization of the New Zealand extension service took nearly 9 yr (1986 to 1994) and 3 yr (1992 to 1995) of negotiating before it was sold to a private company. During the commercialization process, the market for paid advisors increased and many of them left the public extension service to become private agricultural consultants. Many farmers were initially unwilling to pay for consultancy services. On the other hand, implementation of advice and adoption of new technologies has been greater among farmers when advice and technology are purchased than when they are provided free. Since the commercialization of publicly funded extension, farmer cooperatives and commodity boards have begun to provide free or low cost services to transfer information to farmers. Educational models and goals, and client-advisor relationships have also changed as a result of user-pays. The commercialization and privatization of publicly funded agricultural extension is a relatively new process and its affect on the long-term sustainability of agriculture within a country are uncertain. Consequently, additional in-depth investigation into the process and its long-term consequences on agricultural productivity, profitability, and social well-being should be completed before initiating such a plan in the USA.

The impact of agricultural extension type and form on technical efficiency under transition: An empirical assessment of wheat production in Uzbekistan

Chapter 2 - Reforms in agricultural extension service system in Bangladesh

Agriculture extension and advisory services is a multidisciplinary discipline based on human interaction seeking to improve the livelihoods of farming communities and individuals by providing information and technologies. The training of extension staff is important as it has a bearing on their effectiveness in the office and in the field. This study sought to determine the HRD activities in agricultural extension and advisory services in the public and private sector. The study was done in 5 counties in Kenya and a total of 440 agricultural extension agents were sampled from the public and private extension service. HRD activities focused on formal and in-service training. 68 % of the respondents had attended formal education to improve their education with the majority 63.5 percent, having trained at the diploma level from certificate level while 21.1 % had undergone training at the degree level from diploma level. The main areas of specialization were Agricultural education (34.1 %), General agriculture (28.1 %) and Horticulture (11.7 %). The inclusion of non-agricultural areas of specialization such as Sustainable development and Strategic planning and management show the multidisciplinary nature of agriculture. Inservice courses attended were in the form of short courses, seminars, or workshops. These were clustered in five general areas; Crop Management, Management, Agricultural Economics, Agricultural Extension, and Animal Science. Most respondents (40.9 percent) had undergone training in Crop management which covered various crop enterprises from breeding to postharvest management. The shift of agricultural policy toward business orientation is reflected in 13.0 % the respondents specializing in Agricultural Economics. These HRD activities show commitment of agricultural extension providers to improve the competencies of their staff to deliver effective services to farmers. The wide range of formal and in-service courses attended also reflects the need to meet the management and technical requirements of a pluralistic and demand driven extension service.

Despite the application and use of mobile and web-based technologies in improving access to information, the agricultural extension services still plays a key role in disseminating knowledge, technologies and agricultural information, and linking farmers with other stakeholders. However, limited access to extension services is the main factor causing decreased agricultural productivity. In Kenya the extension staff: farmer ratio is 1:1,500, a situation that hinders most farmers from accessing technological advances. A critical change agent is therefore required in transforming farming to modern and commercialized agriculture, promote household food security, improve income and reduce poverty. Virtual Agriculture Community (VAC) is a platform that provides access to agriculture information and training for both farmers and agriculture extension officers (AEO) through voice channel and supported by short message service for quizzes and multimedia short message service for graphical information. This paper discusses the application of innovative ICT tools that offer an effective solution that catalyses the information dissemination and knowledge transfer. It proposes Virtual Agricultural Community platform to provide remote access regular live and offline training of agriculture extension officers and farmers through mobile phones.

A salient theme in D. Gale Johnson’s work is the importance of agricultural development for general prosperity and for economic diversification (e.g., Johnson 2000). Johnson has also noted that most of the world’s poor are engaged in farming, so that a key focus of development policy is to raise the incomes of farmers. From a global perspective, increasing the productivity of agriculture, given the fixity of land, is necessary for both poverty reduction and the development of the nonagricultural sector. At the level of the world, agricultural productivity gains, poverty reduction, and the growth of the nonfarm sector are complements. However, the question remains whether these observations imply that every poor country should focus its public resources on agricultural development in order to raise the incomes of people now engaged in farming and whether such a policy is necessary for obtaining economic diversity. In this article, we use the experience of India over the past 30 years to address the issue of whether agricultural technical change actually leads to economic diversification and income growth within the rural sector in the context of an open-economy country in which there are cross-area trade and capital flows. We focus in particular on the rural sector because this is the sector in which linkages between agricultural and nonagricultural sectors are thought to be the strongest. We exploit the fact that India has maintained a policy of openness with respect to agricultural technology over this period, permitting and actively supporting agricultural development, and has moved to a reformed regime in which goods are traded and capital is more mobile in the 1990s. Evidence on the relationship between agricultural growth and nonfarm

Agriculture and agricultural extension service are facing numerous problems in present times when good solutions are not easy to find. Providing of agricultural extension service is important foreign-political instrument of a state which has stimulates the development of agricultural production. Agricultural extension service must provide effective link between holdings-producers, agricultural research and other sources of information. Agricultural extension agents must be aware of psycho-social and social aspects of group action and individual counselling. Therefore, one of priorities in agricultural development of our country is rising of the level of extension operation and establishment of extension service based on modern principles. This is the reason why in this paper, some of the traits of the genesis of extension services were indicated, as well as types of extension services and models of the organization, financing and human resources at disposal and structuring of these resources according to main characteristics, for the purpose of modernization and agricultural and rural development.

Agriculture-Nutrition Linkages in the Kenyan Small Farm Sector: The Role of Commercialization, Technology Adoption, and Extension