The Eighteenth and Nineteenth Century Ottoman Attempts to Catch Up with Europe

Abstract

Click to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size Notes O. Bahadır, ‘Osmanlılarda Topçuluk’ [Artillery in the Ottomans], Bilim Tarihi, 9 (1992), p.25. R. Murphey, ‘Osmanlıların Batı Teknolojisini Benimsemedeki Tutumları: Efrenci Teknisyenlerin Sivil ve Askerî Uygulamadaki Rolü’ [The Ottoman Attitudes Towards the Adoption of Western Technologies: The Role of Foreign Technicians in Civilian and Military Applications], in E. İhsanoğlu (ed.), Osmanlı ve Batı Teknolojisi: Yeni Araştırmalar Yeni Görüşler (Istanbul: Edebiyat Fakültesi Basımevi, 1992), p.12. E. İhsanoğlu, Science, Technology and Learning in the Ottoman Empire (Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing Ltd., Variorum Collected Studies 2004), p.55. Baron de Busbecq, Ambassades et Voyages en Turquie et en Amasie, published in 1646 (cited in A.A. Adıvar, Osmanlı Türklerinde İlim [The Science of the Ottoman Turks] (Istanbul: Maarif Matbaası, 1943), p.56). E. İhsanoğlu, Science, Technology and Learning in the Ottoman Empire, p.56. Takiyüddin (Takî al-Din) al-Rashid (1521–85), was a Damascus-born Ottoman mathematician, scientist, inventor and astronomer, who, among other things, built an observatory in Istanbul in 1577, which was torn down in 1580 due to pressure from the religious conservatives (Adıvar, Osmanlı Türklerinde İlim, p.84). His observatory was supposed to rival that of Tycho Brahe, built in Denmark in 1572 and, in a book that he wrote, Takiyüddin claims that the observatory had all the astronomical equipment required and that he, himself, had produced an astronomical clock, showing the varying positions of the sun, the planets and the stars (Adıvar, Osmanlı Türklerinde İlim, pp.82–3). Murphey, ‘Osmanlıların Batı Teknolojisini Benimsemedeki Tutumları’, p.16. The atmosphere had changed by the time of the reign of Sultan Ahmed III (1703–30) and the Grand Vizier Damat İbrahim Pasha. The fatwa allowing İbrahim Müteferrika to start a printing press permitted the publication of dictionaries, books on logic, philosophy and astronomy; while the permission given by the Sultan excluded the printing of subjects pertaining to theology (kelâm), Islamic jurisprudence (fıkıh), commentaries on the Qur'an (tefsir) and sayings and actions of the Prophet Muhammad (hadis) (Adıvar, Osmanlı Türklerinde İlim, p.149), implicitly allowing, thereby, the publication of everything else. Niyazi Berkes also points out that the fatwa mentioned above was given very quickly and that even during the 1730 uprising which ended the era (and the Grand Vizier's life) there were no objections to the printing press. Apparently, 300 years after the invention, the only objection to the printing press was coming from the guild of calligraphers (Berkes, Türkiye'de Çağdaşlaşma, p.59). Adıvar, Osmanlı Türklerinde İlim, p.97. Murphey, ‘Osmanlıların Batı Teknolojisini Benimsemedeki Tutumları’, p.14. Murphey (ibid., p.12, n.11) conjectures that the Ottoman inability to produce galleons was not due to a technical incapability, but rather due to a lack of resources. Accordingly, it was the decline in the timber stock that prevented the Ottomans from building galleons. Instead, they were forced to build galleys that could be used mainly for defensive purposes close to the shore. Murphey does not explain, however, how this shortage was overcome a century later. N. Berkes, ‘İlk Türk Matbaası Kurucusunun Dinî ve Fikrî Kimliği’ [The Religious and Ideological Identity of the Founder of the First Turkish Printing Press], Belleten, Vol.26, No.104 (1962), pp.715–737. Murphey, ‘Osmanlıların Batı Teknolojisini Benimsemedeki Tutumları’ . Early maps of the Mediterranean, drawn by İbrahim Kâtibî (1416) and Mürsiyeli İbrahim (1461) show the extent of European contribution (cited in İhsanoğlu, Science, Technology and Learning in the Ottoman Empire, p.58). As noted on the map by Pirî Reis himself: Pirî Reis Haritası [Map of Pirî Reis] (Çubuklu, Istanbul, Deniz Kuvvetleri Komutanlığı Hidrografi Yayını, 2001), pp.6, 34 and the map in the Appendix). E. İhsanoğlu conjectures that this work can partly be a translation of a book, De Orbe Novo, by Pedro Martir, discussing the discoveries of Columbus (İhsanoğlu, Science, Technology and Learning in the Ottoman Empire, Section I, p.61). Adıvar, Osmanlı Türklerinde İlim, pp.61 and 71. İhsanoğlu, Science, Technology and Learning in the Ottoman Empire, Section I, p.61. Noël Durret's Novelle Theorie des Planetes was translated by Köse İbrahim Efendi as Secencel el-Eflâk fi Gayet el-İdrak [The Mirror of Heavens and the Limit of Perception] (İhsanoğlu, Science, Technology and Learning in the Ottoman Empire, Section II, pp.3–4). İhsanoğlu, Science, Technology and Learning in the Ottoman Empire, Section II, p.10. According to Tezkireci Köse İbrahim Efendi, the chief astronomer's initial response was to dismiss the translation saying that the ‘Europeans have many vanities similar to this one’ (cited in ibid., Section II, p.4). After the initial reaction mentioned above, however, the chief astronomer Müneccimek Şekîbî Mehmet Çelebi (d.1667), studies the translation, compares it with his accumulated knowledge, coming from Ptolemy and Ulugh Bey and praises the translator. According to E. İhsanoğlu, this shows the self-confidence of the Ottoman astronomers in not accepting everything that comes from Europe without careful consideration. Moreover, because the predictions of Copernicus' system do not differ much from those of the geocentric system, whether the universe is heliocentric or geocentric is ‘a secondary technical detail’ (ibid., Section II, p.10) – an indifference to reality difficult to accept. W. Blaeu's Atlas Maior seu Cosmographia Blaeuiana Qua Solum, Coleum Accuratissime Describuntur was translated by E. Bekr as Nusret el-İslâm ve'l Sürûr fi Tahrîr Atlas Mayor [The Victory of Islam and the Pleasure in the Writing of Atlas Major] (E. İhsanoğlu, Science, Technology and Learning in the Ottoman Empire, Section II, pp.10–11). İ. Kalycıoğulları and Y. Unat, ‘Kopernik Kuramı’ nın Türkiye'deki Yansımaları' [Reflections of the Copernican Theory in Turkey] (Paper presented at the 14th National Astronomy Convention, Kayseri, 31 Aug.–14 Sept. 2004). Cihannüma can be translated as World Atlas, or, following Adıvar (Osmanlı Türklerinde İlim, p.120), as Cosmorama. Kalycıoğulları and Unat, ‘Kopernik Kuramı’ nın Türkiye'deki Yansımaları'. İhsanoğlu, Science, Technology and Learning in the Ottoman Empire, Section II, p.34. Ibid. T. Kuhn, The Copernican Revolution: Planetary Astronomy in the Development of Western Thought, (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1957, p.227. İ. Tekeli and S. İlkin, Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nda Eğitim ve Bilgi Üretim Sisteminin Oluşumu [The Development of Education and Knowledge Production System in the Ottoman Empire] (Ankara, Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayınları, 1999), p.50. Ibn al-Nafis' discovery was taken up by Miguel Serveto (1511–53), the Spanish scholar and the founder of Unitarism who, in turn, had passed it on to William Harvey. E. İhsanoğlu, ‘Osmanlı İmparatorluğunda Bilim, Teknoloji ve Sanayide Modernleşme Gayretleri’ [Modernization Attempts in Science, Technology and Manufacturing in the Ottoman Empire], Osmanlı Bilimi Araştırmaları, vol.II, 1998, p.9. İhsanoğlu, Science, Technology and Learning in the Ottoman Empire, Section II, p.31. Ibid., p.36. Descartes' Discours de la Méthode was published in 1637 and Newton's Philophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica in 1687. M. Kaçar, ‘Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nda Askerî Sahada Yenileşme Döneminin Başlangıcı’ [The Beginning of Military Innovation Period in the Ottoman Empire], Osmanlı Bilimi Araştırmaları, vol.I, 1995, p.210. M. Kaçar, ‘Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nda Askeri Teknik Eğitimde Modernleşme Çalışmaları ve Mühendishanelerin kuruluşu (1808'e kadar)’ [Modernization Attempts in Military Technical Education in the Ottoman Empire and the Establishment of the Engineering Schools (Until 1808)], Osmanlı Bilimi Araştırmaları, vol.II, 1998, p.73. Ibid., pp.74–6. W. Müller-Wiener, ‘15–19. Yüzyıllar Arasında İstanbul'da İmalathane ve Fabrikalar’ [Workshops and Factories in Istanbul Between the 15th and 19th Centuries], in E. İhsanoğlu (ed.), Osmanlı ve Batı Teknolojisi: Yeni Araştırmalar Yeni Görüşler (Istanbul: Edebiyat Fakültesi Basımevi, 1992), p.62. The date of the founding of the School of Geometry is given by K. Beydilli (Türk Bilim ve Matbaacılık Tarihinde Mühendishâne: Mühendishâne Matbaası ve Kütüphânesi (1776–1826) [The School of Engineering in the History of Turkish Science and Publishing: The Publishing House and Library of the Engineering School] (Istanbul: Eren Yayıncılık, 1995), p.23, n.3) and İ.H. Uzunçarşılı (Osmanlı Devletinin Merkez ve Bahriye Teşkilatı [The Central and Naval Administration of the Ottoman Empire] (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu Basımevi, 1988), p.505) as 1776, and by O.N. Ergin (Türkiye Maarif Tarihi [History of Turkish Education], Vol.II, (Istanbul: Osmanbey Matbaası, 1940), p.182) as 1773. Kaçar (‘Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nda Askeri Teknik Eğitimde Modernleşme Çalışmaları ve Mühendishanelerin kuruluşu’, p.82) says that classes started on 29 April 1775, but the school was institutionalized in 1776. While the word ‘engineer’ derives from the Latin gignere, which means to produce, the term mühendis, deriving from the word ‘geometry’ (hendese), does not have that connotation. Yet, mühendis is the word for engineer in (old and modern) Turkish. In the text Hendesehāne is translated as the School (House) of Geometry, while mühendishāne, deriving from the same origin, as the School (House) of Engineering. Beydilli, Türk Bilim ve Matbaacılık Tarihinde Mühendishâne, p.24. Berkes, Türkiye'de Çağdaşlaşma, p.176. Beydilli Türk Bilim ve Matbaacılık Tarihinde Mühendishâne, pp.26 and 67. Kaçar, ‘Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nda Askeri Teknik Eğitimde Modernleşme Çalışmaları ve Mühendishanelerin kuruluşu’, p.103. While some of the miners would dig tunnels under city walls during sieges, others would set up mines to blow up city walls. Beydilli, Türk Bilim ve Matbaacılık Tarihinde Mühendishâne, pp.35–6. Kaçar, ‘Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nda Askeri Teknik Eğitimde Modernleşme Çalışmaları ve Mühendishanelerin kuruluşu, p.113. Ibid., pp.120–21. Ergin, Türkiye Maarif Tarihi, p.282. N. Sakaoğlu, Osmanlı'dan Günümüze Eğitim Tarihi [The History of Education from the Ottomans to the Present] (Istanbul: Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları, 2003), p.57. E. İhsanoğlu, ‘Tanzimat Öncesi ve Tanzimat Dönemi Osmanlı Bilim ve Eğitim Anlayışı’ [The Ottoman Understanding of Science and Education During the Periods Before and After Tanzimat], in H. D. Yıldız (ed.), 150. Yılında Tanzimat (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayınları, 1992), p.354. P. Tuğlacı, The Role of the Dadian Family in Ottoman, Social, Economic and Political Life (Istanbul: Pars Yayın, Ticaret, 1993), p.57. İstanbul Ansiklopedisi, Vol.II, p.68, article on gunpowder factories. A. Giz, ‘17. Yüzyılda İstanbul Şehrinde Sanayiin Durumu’ [The State of Industry in City of Istanbul in the Seventeenth Century], İstanbul Sanayi Odası Dergisi, Vol.2, No.17, 15 July 1967. A. Bilir, Beykoz: Çeşmibülbüle Gizlenmiş Ab-ı Hayat (Istanbul: Kitabevi, 2008), p.41. Dad Arakel Amira (1753–1812), who belonged to the Amira class of upper level Armenians, was a self-taught architect, watchmaker, engineer and inventor. He was also the initiator of a dynasty, known as the Dadians, who were chief gunpowder makers, engineers and directors, dominating the Ottoman industrial scene in the first half of the nineteenth century (Tuğlacı, The Role of the Dadian Family in Ottoman, Social, Economic and Political Life). Simon Dadian was the oldest son of Dad Arakel. After working with his father at the Azadlı Gunpowder Factory, he became the chief gunpowder maker of the factory after his father's death in 1812. In 1819, he also became the director of the paper mill at Beykoz. In 1826, with the abolishment of the Janissary Corps who had the control of the Bakırköy Gunpowder Factory, he was appointed as the director of that factory too (Tuğlacı, The Role of the Dadian Family in Ottoman, Social, Economic and Political Life). Ohannes Dadian was the youngest son of Dad Arakel Amira. Like his father and brother, he also was an autodidact and a talented student in the art of engineering. He learned the trade working with his brother Simon from 1813 onwards, while the latter was the chief gunpowder maker at the Azadlı Gunpowder Factory. Upon the death of his brother Simon in 1834, he became the chief gunpowder maker of the Azadlı Gunpowder factory. İstanbul Ansiklopedisi, Vol.II, p.68, article on Gunpowder Factories. Müller-Wiener, ‘15–19. Yüzyıllar Arasında İstanbul'da İmalathane ve Fabrikalar’, p.69. Tuğlacı, The Role of the Dadian Family in Ottoman, Social, Economic and Political Life, pp.183–4. Edward Clark (The Emergence of Textile Manufacturing Entrepreneurs in Turkey: 1804–1968. (PhD thesis, Princeton University, 1969), p.27), referring to Miss Julia Pardoe (Şehirlerin Ecesi İstanbul – Bir Leydinin Gözüyle 19. Yüzyılda Osmanlı Yaşamı [Istanbul: The Queen of Cities – Life in the Nineteenth Century from the Perspective of a Lady] (Istanbul, Kitap Yayınevi, 2004)), who had visited Istanbul in the 1830s accompanying her father, a British major, claims the factories were in ruins by the mid-1830s. Bilir (Beykoz: Çeşmibülbüle Gizlenmiş Ab-ı Hayat, pp.36–38), on the other hand, presents photographs of the factory from the time of Sultan Abdülhamid II (1876–1908). It is possible that both pieces of evidence were correct and that the factory was renovated after the 1830s. Bilir, Beykoz: Çeşmibülbüle Gizlenmiş Ab-ı Hayat, pp.38–40 T. Güran, ‘Tanzimat Döneminde Devlet Fabrikaları’ [State Owned Factories During the Tanzimat Period], in H.D. Yıldız (ed.), 150. Yılında Tanzimat (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayınları, 1992), p.239; Clark, The Emergence of Textile Manufacturing Entrepreneurs in Turkey, p.28. According to a story recounted by Julia Pardoe, the fez masters were later sent back to Tunisia because they were sabotaging the dyeing process (Pardoe, Şehirlerin Ecesi İstanbul, p.467). Clark, The Emergence of Textile Manufacturing Entrepreneurs in Turkey. E. Clark, ‘Ottoman Industrial Revolution’, International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, Vol.5, (1974), p.66. P. Tuğlacı, The Role of the Dadian Family in Ottoman, Social, Economic and Political Life,, p.185. Clark, The Emergence of Textile Manufacturing Entrepreneurs in Turkey, p.30. A. Giz, ‘İslimye Çuha Fabrikası’ [The Broadcloth Factory at Sliven], İstanbul Sanayi Odası Dergisi, Vol.3, No.27, 15 May 1968. Clark, The Emergence of Textile Manufacturing Entrepreneurs in Turkey, p.41. F. Dalsar, Türk Sanayi ve Ticaret Tarihinde Bursa'da İpekçilik [Silk Farming at Bursa, as Part of the Industrial and Commercial History of Turkey] (Istanbul: İstanbul Üniversitesi Yayınları No. 856, İktisat Fakültesi No. 116, Sermet Matbaası, 1960), p.412; Clark, The Emergence of Textile Manufacturing Entrepreneurs in Turkey, p.46. Dalsar traces the origins of silk production in Bursa back to the fourteenth century, with a peak in the first half of the sixteenth century. Silk production had entered into a phase of long decline immediately afterwards. In the beginning of the nineteenth century, due to a change of tastes in Europe on the one hand and the introduction of machines into silk weaving on the other, European demand for Ottoman silk began to increase (Dalsar, Türk Sanayi ve Ticaret Tarihinde Bursa'da İpekçilik). Ibid., p.411. C. Issawi, ‘De-industrialization and Re-industrialization in the Middle East Since 1800’ International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, Vol.12 (1980), p.470. R. Önsoy, ‘Tanzimat Dönemi Sanayileşme Politikası’ [Industrialization Policy During the Tanzimat Era], Hacettepe Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fakültesi Dergisi, 2 Feb. 1984, p.5. Ş. Pamuk, Osmanlı Ekonomisinde Bağımlılık ve Büyüme: 1820–1913 [Dependence and Growth in the Ottoman Economy] (Istanbul: Tarih Vakfı Yurt Yayınları, 2005(1984)), p.21. D. Quataert, Ottoman Manufacturing in the Age of Industrial Revolution (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993). Pamuk, Osmanlı Ekonomisinde Bağımlılık ve Büyüme, pp.26–7. Quataert, Ottoman Manufacturing in the Age of Industrial Revolution, p.16. R. Önsoy, Tanzimat Dönemi Osmanlı Sanayii ve Sanayileşme Politikası [Ottoman Industry and Industrialization Policy During the Tanzimat Era] (Ankara: Türkiye İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları, 1988), pp.38–9. According to a Belgian textile worker (talking to Charles MacFarlane), since machines were imported from England and France, wool was imported, via Trieste, from Saxony and workers came from France and Belgium, the output could not be called Turkish; it was only made in Turkey (Clark, ‘Ottoman Industrial Revolution’, p.75), quoting from C. MacFarlane's observations in Turkey and Its Destiny, 1850). Though the Belgian worker and, hence, MacFarlane dismiss the Ottoman efforts to industrialize in this manner, these efforts should be considered as technology transfer par excellence and lie at the core of Ottoman development at the time. Güran, ‘Tanzimat Döneminde Devlet Fabrikaları’, pp.235–9. Müller-Wiener, ‘15–19. Yüzyıllar Arasında İstanbul'da İmalathane ve Fabrikalar’, p.78. Bogos Dadian (1801–63) was the son of Simon Dadian and a nephew of Ohannes Dadian. He received his initial training working with his father at the Bakırköy Gunpowder Factory. Upon the death of his father in 1834, he became its director (Barutçubaşı) and then the general director of gunpowder factories (Baruthaneler Nazırı) (Tuğlacı, The Role of the Dadian Family in Ottoman, Social, Economic and Political Life, pp.183–4.). Güran, ‘Tanzimat Döneminde Devlet Fabrikaları’, p.250, Table 1. Clark, The Emergence of Textile Manufacturing Entrepreneurs in Turkey, p.31. Müller-Wiener, ‘15–19. Yüzyıllar Arasında İstanbul'da İmalathane ve Fabrikalar’. Clark, ‘Ottoman Industrial Revolution’, pp.68–9. More on this first technical school of the Empire below. Tuğlacı, The Role of the Dadian Family in Ottoman, Social, Economic and Political Life,, p.217. Güran, ‘Tanzimat Döneminde Devlet Fabrikaları’, pp.247–8. Tuğlacı, The Role of the Dadian Family in Ottoman, Social, Economic and Political Life,, p.197. Clark, The Emergence of Textile Manufacturing Entrepreneurs in Turkey, p.32. Ibid., p.33. E. Özvar, ‘Osmanlılar Zamanında Zeytinburnu’ [Zeytinburnu During Ottoman Times], in B. Evren (ed.) Zeytinburnu, Surların Öte Yanı (Istanbul, Zeytinburnu Belediye Başkanlığı, 2003), p.54. Önsoy, ‘Tanzimat Dönemi Sanayileşme Politikası’, p.6. Müller-Wiener, ‘15–19. Yüzyıllar Arasında İstanbul'da İmalathane ve Fabrikalar’, p.79. Ibid. The Director of the Imperial Cannonball Factory (Tophane-i Āmire Nazırı) Ahmet Fethi Pasha was an ex-Ottoman ambassador in Paris. Being well acquainted with European styles and fashions, he had played an important role furnishing the Dolmabahçe Palace. He also had established the first museum in the empire, The Imperial Museum (Müze-i Hümayûn), exhibiting pieces from the Dolmabahçe Palace. Ö. Küçükerman, İstanbul'da 500 Yıllık Sanayi Yarışı: Türk Şişe Cam Sanayii ve Şişe Cam [500 Years of Industrialization Race in Istanbul: Turkish Bottle and Glass Industry] (Istanbul: Bottle and Glass Factory, December 1998), pp.156–60. Ibid., pp.163–4. Güran, ‘Tanzimat Döneminde Devlet Fabrikaları’, p.245. Önsoy, ‘Tanzimat Dönemi Sanayileşme Politikası’, p.7. Tuğlacı, The Role of the Dadian Family in Ottoman, Social, Economic and Political Life, p.200. Güran, ‘Tanzimat Döneminde Devlet Fabrikaları’, p.248. D. Quataert, Manufacturing and Technology Transfer in the Ottoman Empire: 1800–1914 (Istanbul and Strasbourg: The Isis Press, 1992), p.30. Güran, ‘Tanzimat Döneminde Devlet Fabrikaları’. Dalsar, Türk Sanayi ve Ticaret Tarihinde Bursa'da İpekçilik, p.411. Ibid.; Güran, ‘Tanzimat Döneminde Devlet Fabrikaları’, p.249. Güran, ‘Tanzimat Döneminde Devlet Fabrikaları’, p.236. E. Tutel, ‘Şirket-i Hayriye’, İstanbul Ansiklopedisi, Vol.7 (1994), pp.181–4. R. Akbulut and C. Sorguç, ‘Gazhaneler’ [Gasworks], İstanbul Ansiklopedisi, Vol.3 (1994), pp.377–8. Clark, ‘Ottoman Industrial Revolution’, p.73. Önsoy, Tanzimat Dönemi Osmanlı Sanayii ve Sanayileşme Politikası, p.55. Clark, ‘Ottoman Industrial Revolution. Önsoy, Tanzimat Dönemi Osmanlı Sanayii ve Sanayileşme Politikası. Küçükerman, İstanbul'da 500 Yıllık Sanayi Yarışı, p.205. Clark, The Emergence of Textile Manufacturing Entrepreneurs in Turkey, p.38. A. Giz, ‘1868'de İstanbul Sanayicilerinin Şirketler Halinde Birleştirilmesi Teşebbüsü’ [The Attempt to Consolidate the İstanbul Industrialists in the Form of Joint Stock Companies], İstanbul Sanayi Odası Dergisi, Vol.3, No.34, 15 Dec. 1968; Önsoy, ‘Tanzimat Dönemi Sanayileşme Politikası’, pp.9–11 The tanners' corporation was established in September 1866. There was another attempt a month earlier for the 1500 gold and silver wire drawers. Partly due to changing fashion and partly to foreign competition, the demand for their products was falling and the profession was in the process of a slow decline. Unfortunately, however, this attempt was not successful (Önsoy, Osmanlı Sanayii ve Sanayileşme Politikası, pp.102–3). Ibid., pp.103–5. Önsoy, ‘Tanzimat Dönemi Sanayileşme Politikası', p.10; Tanzimat Dönemi Osmanlı Sanayii ve Sanayileşme Politikası, pp.102–114. A. Giz, ‘1863 İstanbul Sergisi’ [Istanbul Exhibition of 1863], İstanbul Sanayi Odası Dergisi, Vol.3, No. 28, 15 June 1968; R. Önsoy, 'Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nun Katıldığı İlk Uluslararası Sergiler ve Sergi-i Umumî-i Osmanî [The First International Exhibitions Participated by the Ottoman Empire and the General Ottoman Exhibition of 1863], Belleten, Vol.XLVII, No.185 (1983), p.229. Önsoy, ‘Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nun Katıldığı İlk Uluslararası Sergiler ve Sergi-i Umumî-i Osmanî’, p.231. Giz, ‘1863 İstanbul Sergisi’. Önsoy, ‘Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nun Katıldığı İlk Uluslararası Sergiler ve Sergi-i Umumî-i Osmanî’, p. 235. A. Giz, ‘İstanbul'da İlk Sanayi Mektebinin Kuruluşu’ [The Establishment of the First Technical School in Istanbul], İstanbul Sanayi Odası Dergisi, Vol.3, No.35, 15 Jan. 1969. Paşabahçe is a district of Beykoz, the home of earlier glass workshops and factories. Küçükerman, İstanbul'da 500 Yıllık Sanayi Yarışı, p.17. Müller-Wiener, ‘15–19. Yüzyıllar Arasında İstanbul'da İmalathane ve Fabrikalar’, p.81. Sperm candle is the candle produced from the waxy substance obtained from the head of the gigantic sperm whales (physeter macrocephelus), initially thought to be the sperm of the whale. Bilir, Beykoz: Çeşmibülbüle Gizlenmiş Ab-ı Hayat, p.44. Müller-Wiener, ‘15–19. Yüzyıllar Arasında İstanbul'da İmalathane ve Fabrikalar’, pp.82–3. Ibid. Clark, The Emergence of Textile Manufacturing Entrepreneurs in Turkey, pp.94–9. The Regulations of 1869 were influenced by a report written by Jean Victor Duruy (1811–94), the French Minister of Education (1863–69). At the invitation of the Ottoman government, he wrote a report in 1867 to prepare the way for educational reforms and his secular views were influential in charting the way in which the reforms in the empire developed (Berkes, Türkiye'de Çağdaşlaşma, p.233). E. Dölen, ‘Darülfünun’, Tanzimattan Cumhuriyete Türkiye Ansiklopedisi II (Istanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 1985), p.476. Sakaoğlu, Osmanlı' dan Günümüze Eğitim Tarihi, p. 78. B. Kodaman, ‘Tanzimat'tan II. Meşrutiyet'e Kadar Sanayi Mektepleri’ [Technical Schools in the Period from the Reforms 1839 to the Second Constitution], in O. Okyar and H. İnalcık (eds.), Türkiye'nin Sosyal ve Ekonomik Tarihi: Birinci Uluslararası Türkiye'nin Sosyal ve Ekonomik Tarihi Kongresi Tebliğleri, Hacettepe University, July 11–13, 1977 (Ankara, Meleksan Ltd. Şti., 1980), p.290. Ibid., p.292. S. Kadıoğlu, ‘Osmanlı Döneminde Türkiye'de Ziraat Okulları Üzerine Notlar ve Tedrisat-ı Ziraiye Nizamnamesi’ [Notes on the Agricultural Schools in Turkey During the Ottoman Period and the ‘Regulations on Agricultural Teaching’], Kutadgubilig Felsefe-Bilim Araştırmaları Dergisi, No.8 (Oct. 2005), pp.239–57. O. Keck, ‘The National System for Technical Innovation in Germany’, in R. Nelson (ed.), National Innovation Systems (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993), p.120. Turkish Statistical Institute (database)/Education, Culture, Sport/Education Statistics/Dynamic Search/Educational Status. H. Odagiri and A. Goto ‘The Japanese System for Technical Innovation: Past, Present and Future’, in R. Nelson (ed.), National Innovation Systems (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993), p.79. Turkish Statistical Institute (database)/Education, Culture, Sport/Education Statistics/Dynamic Search/Educational Status. After the 2006–07 school year, the net enrollment rate statistics began to be based on the Address-Based Population Registration System (Adrese Dayalı Nüfus Kayıt Sistemi) Census Statistics. After this change, the net enrollment rate in primary education jumped up by 7 percentage points in one year and no explanation is given for this increase. As a result of this change, the recent statistics show the net enrollment rate in primary education to be 98.17% for the 2009–10 school year. L. Kim, ‘National System of Industrial Innovation’, in R. Nelson (ed.), National Innovation Systems (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993), p.359. Ibid., p.370. Keck, ‘The National System for Technical Innovation in Germany’, p.119. Odagiri and Goto, ‘The Japanese System for Technical Innovation’, pp.80–81. Keck, ‘The National System for Technical Innovation in Germany’, p.129.