The cost of working: measuring physical and virtual access to jobs

Abstract

ABSTRACT The COVID-19 pandemic has increased the incentive to work-from-home (WFH) in many countries and well-developed information and communication technology (ICT) provides strong support to do so with no need to physically travel to workplaces. This paper defines the concept of physical (traditional) and virtual (online) access to jobs based on dual access theory, by analysing different job profiles to recognize those that are capable of working from home and those that are not. A theoretical framework is then built for physical and virtual access measures and applied to the Minneapolis – St. Paul (Twin Cities) region. The results show that virtual access is much more sensitive to its cost variables, like wage change or at-home working space, while physical is less affected accordingly. A suburban ring emerges, which enjoys better access to jobs when physical and virtual working are mixed over a week. The results provide insights for planners, managers, and policymakers.