The Changing Structure of American Innovation: Some Cautionary Remarks for Economic Growth

A defining feature of modern economic growth is the systematic application of science to advance technology. However, despite sustained progress in scientific knowledge, recent productivity growth in the U.S. has been disappointing. We review major changes in the American innovation ecosystem over the past century. The past three decades have been marked by a growing division of labor between universities focusing on research and large corporations focusing on development. Knowledge produced by universities is not often in a form that can be readily digested and turned into new goods and services. Small firms and university technology transfer offices cannot fully substitute for corporate research, which had integrated multiple disciplines at the scale required to solve significant technical problems. Therefore, whereas the division of innovative labor may have raised the volume of science by universities, it has also slowed, at least for a period of time, the transformation of that knowledge into novel products and processes.

The article continues the analysis of the problem of tensions between the modelled direction and the context in education in Lithuania in the stage of its development in the second decade of the 21st century. The selected aspect – the opportunity for the transformational purpose of education declared in documents on education while social groups assess education unfavourably. The research question – why are there tensions between the declared transformational purpose of education and the context of development of education. The research is based on the qualitative methodology of documentary analysis: purposefully selected document sources of discourse on educational matters are analysed.
 Data analysis and interpretation and discussion of approaches by comparing them with theoretical perceptions and insights of researchers lead to conclude the following: All approach coalitions analysed in the discourse recognise transformational impact of education as a system on an individual and society, but treat the content of the impact completely differently.
 The representatives of business and politics coalitions rely in the discourse on the perceptions of education as socialisation and development of society as economic growth, therefore they would consider education good, if individuals were formed in accordance with the requirements of the business coalition, with no opportunities to choose the learning area, provision of knowledge of exact sciences, digital literacy and entrepreneurship required for economic growth rates, training the capacity to sell skills, instilling values and behavioural models for taking care of oneself, so that young people would as soon as possible be able to become the quality “human capital” creating added value, while the education system and policy would serve business and industrial development. This discourse coalition uses pervading economic criteria in assessing the intellectual resources and processes of education, and educational outcomes, and would use these criteria for modelling further direction of teaching individuals and developing education.
 Individual participants of discourse who by their occupation belong to the business coalition are guided by the perception of the development of society as long-term sustainable progress, i.e. they assess not only economic growth, but also the distribution of goods resulting from sustainable progress and the stability of progress. Although individual approaches do not represent a strong position in assessing education, their concepts serve the basis for raising the problem of equality of income and opportunities in society, which has a significant impact on educational outcomes: income inequality causes inequality of opportunities due to which some part of the youth is socially marginalised or is forced to emigrate.
 The discourse coalition of philosophers, sociologists, and psychologists relies on the perception of education as empowerment of an individual and as personal liberation, development of society as increasing choice opportunities and the process of revealing the capacity to form the world. Approaches of this coalition focus on the humanist relationship with the growing individual as the perspective of the nation, on a human being nurtured on the humanist level as a civic, thinking, creative and democratic individual, on the cognition of the world as an intrinsic value and as the way to search for intelligence, on knowledge which serves values, and also on many other values which essentially represent the provisions of educational policies adhered to in Lithuania in the second decade of the 21st century.
 Tensions between the provisions modelled in education and the understanding of the role of education in society, assessment of the condition of education, and further direction in which education should develop during the period researched by groups implementing education policy and different groups of society occur due to conflicting theoretical concepts, on which individual groups of society rely.

Reflections on modern economic growth of nations. If modern economic growth is defined as the spread of a system of production based upon the increased application of organized systems of tested knowledge it is clear that the sum of tested, or scientific knowledge which has potential economic significance is very wide indeed. The increased speed of economic growth over the last century or so implies an increased rale of addition to the stock of knowledge in existence. If , recently , necessity has become less the mother of invention than in the past and invention tends to become the mother of new needs and impulses this implies that the backlog of unused knowledge in society may have increased. If this is so, all countries tend to become underdeveloped and large unused growth potentials in rich countries may prevent an outflow of capital from more to less economically developed countries. It may follow also that it is no longer correct to say that there are technical limits to growth. But even if there is now no fixed limit to economic growth potential we still need to know how the accumulation of knowledge may be maximized. Finally, skewness in the distribution of the human potential devoted to increasing the stock of knowledge or in applying it raises problems of national adaptations in order to make possible the maximum use of the economic growth potential of the transnational stock of knowledge. The problem of the national exploitation of, or adjustement to the growth potential of knowledge may be approached through an examination of the prerequisites which seem exist for rapid economic growth to rake place. These seem to include an acceleration in population growth, a rise in capital formation proportions, a big redistribution of population and labour accompanying a decline in agriculture and a growth of cities, changes in the character of organizational units and a transformation of values. These changes are the work of active minorities and entail painful transition periods of controlled economic revolution. Once the transition period is over, sustained economic growth may depend increasingly upon social, political and economic institutions and their adaptation to the changing opportunities for economic growth offered by the application of science to production. But economic growth in any one country is not cut off from the international situation of that country. Economic growth acts with unequal impact upon nations. The major innovation, determining a distinct epoch in economic growth , begins in one or a few pioneering nations and then spreads oat to others. In this process account must be taken not only of «peacetype» international movements of men and goods but also of the political or power element in international relations. The latter seems, in fact, to be increasing in importance both inside national frontiers and internationally.

Sub-Saharan Africa’s path to industrialization hinges on the interplay between human capital development, investment, and economic growth. Drawing insights from economic development and growth theories, this study examines the key drivers of educational quality, public investment, and economic growth in the region from 1980 to 2022 using conventional growth models. Findings indicate that while increased capital formation enhances educational quality, current investment levels remain insufficient to sustain long-term growth. Economic growth is primarily driven by capital formation, exports, and electricity consumption, but is constrained by the challenges of rapid urbanization. Public investment, in turn, is influenced by urbanization, industrial employment, electricity consumption, and past investment trends. The study underscores the need for strategic investment planning, energy efficiency, and export diversification to support sustainable economic progress. Policymakers should prioritize optimizing public spending, enhancing capital investments, and improving resource management to strengthen education, economic growth, and the role of public investment in regional development.

This paper conducts country‐panel econometric analysis with a focus on the different roles of scientific and technological knowledge on economic growth and on the knowledge production functions. It finds that it is not scientific knowledge (academic articles) but technological knowledge (patents) that matters for economic growth, and that generating scientific knowledge does not automatically lead to the generation of technological knowledge. We find that technological knowledge is primarily determined by corporate research and development efforts, which used to be more lacking in Latin American countries, compared with East Asia. This finding sheds new light on the question of why Latin American and East Asian countries have shown such divergent economic performances.

Ivashchuk I.O., Zapukhlyak V.Z. GLOBAL COOPERATION AS A CONDITION FOR SUSTAINABLE ECONOMIC PROGRESS Purpose. Theoretical conceptualization of global cooperation, justification of its role in ensuring sustainable economic progress, and construction of a multi-vector strategic model of global cooperation. Methodology of research. In order to achieve the set goal, a combination of methods was used in the research process: induction and deduction – to formulate theoretical provisions of global cooperation; analysis and synthesis – to identify the main forms of international interaction and key challenges to global cooperation; comparative method – to identify current trends in global cooperation; scenario analysis – to form strategic vectors of global cooperation and determine their impact on achieving economic progress; economic and statistical analysis – to assess the dynamics of global interaction indicators and economic progress. Findings. It is argued that global cooperation is a strategic prerequisite for ensuring sustainable economic progress. The forms of international interaction through which countries integrate into the global space are outlined, and the differences between global cooperation and other related terms are analyzed. A system of principles of global cooperation is defined. The dynamics of the main areas of global cooperation are assessed. Strategic vectors of international cooperation are proposed: Openness and Growth, Sustainability and Security, Inclusive Governance and Legitimacy. It has been established that the understanding of openness is changing under the influence of financial and security factors, which is confirmed by an analysis of the dynamics of trade openness and the identification of influencing factors at different stages of development. Particular attention is paid to the impact of sanctions on economic progress. The impact of strategic vectors of global cooperation on economic progress is detailed. The prospects for the development of global cooperation and its latest forms are identified, with an emphasis on digital diplomacy, which contributes to sustainable economic progress. Originality. The theoretical conceptualization of global cooperation has been further developed, which has made it possible to propose the author's interpretation of this concept, identify its types and principles, and justify its role in ensuring sustainable economic progress. A comprehensive approach to the formation of a global cooperation strategy has been proposed, on the basis of which three strategic vectors have been identified and their impact on the achievement of economic progress has been substantiated. Practical value. The results of the study are of practical importance, in particular, the proposed three-vector strategy for global cooperation and the algorithm for selecting priorities can be used by both government authorities and business representatives to adapt the model to operating conditions, as well as in scientific and educational practice. Key words: global cooperation, economic integration, sustainable economic progress, economic growth, international trade, trade openness, global supply chains, digital diplomacy, digital trade in services, sanctions.

Urbanization is happening in the huge scale. Beside many advantages of urbanization such as economic and social growth, but at the same time, urbanization brings many problems like air and noise pollution. Urban sustainability aims to make balance between economic growths, environmental issues and social and welfare condition of a city to meet the present needs without jeopardizing the resources and future generation’s opportunity. In order to measure sustainable development progress of an area the role of indicator system is undeniable. In this pre-research work the sustainable development of the Isfahan city in Iran was studied based on 28 indicators in Economic growth, Environmental protection and social and welfare. Moreover the Improved Permutation Polygon Synthetic Indicator Method (IFPPSI) was used to synthesize the value of indicators and geometric illustrate of different indicators. The result showed that the synthetic value of indicators to measure sustainable development of Isfahan city is 0.5 which indicates moderate level of sustainability.

Technological innovation is an important driving force for a country’s sustainable economic development and social progress, and can be achieved through R&D investment, which would lead to sustainable economic growth. This process is one of the important steps for China to realize the transformation of the economic growth mode and the development from extensive to intensive type. Since R&D investment, technological innovation, and economic growth are mutually influential and inseparable, it is particularly important to understand the interrelationship between the three. By collating data from China from 1995 to 2016, this paper established an indicator system of R&D investment, technological innovation, and economic growth as research variables. Vector autoregression model, impulse response function, and variance decomposition function were adopted. A long-term stable dynamic interrelationship among the three was revealed. The empirical analysis showed that in recent years, the growth of R&D investment, technological innovation, and economic growth stagnated or even slowly declined, which indicated that the economic development had insufficient stamina. The conversion efficiency of R&D investment was not high, and R&D investment for short-term profit was ubiquitous. The innovation ability of scientific and technological achievements was not strong, the conversion rate of scientific and technological achievements was not high, and the market integration process was relatively slow. Overall, a good circular mechanism has not been established among R&D investment, technological innovation, and economic growth. Based on this, China should improve the mutual influence and interrelationship among R&D investment, technological innovation, and economic growth. The transmission mechanism among the three should be optimized and stable economic growth promoted, for example, by increasing R&D investment, enhancing the efficiency of R&D funds, improving the incentive system for scientific and technological innovation, and promting the effective use and marketization integration of innovation achievements.

The paper elaborates and tests two hypotheses. First, that knowledge is not a homogeneous activity, but rather a bundle of highly differentiated disciplines that have different characteristics, both in terms of generation and exploitation, that bear a differentiated impact on economic growth. Advances in scientific knowledge that can be converted into technological knowledge with high levels of fungibility, appropriability, cumulability and complementarity have a higher chance to affect economic growth. Second, that academic chairs are a reliable indicator of the amount and types of knowledge being generated by the academic system. Hence the analysis of the evolution of the academic chairs of an academic system is a promising area of investigation. In this paper the exploration of the evolution of the size and the disciplinary composition of the stock of academic chairs in five Italian macro-regions in the years 1900–1959 provides an opportunity to understand the contribution of scientific knowledge to economic growth in each regional system. The econometric analysis confirms that advances in engineering and chemistry, as proxied by the number of chairs, had much a stronger effect on the regional economic growth than advances in other scientific fields. These results have important implications for research policy, as they highlight the differences in the economic effects of academic disciplines, and for the economics of science, as they support the hypothesis that academic chairs can be used as reliable indicators of on-going research activities in the different types of scientific knowledge.

Through its elucidation of the fundamental elements of the sustainability paradigm,this book has depicted that the pathway to sustainable economic progress will be charted out by building, strengthening, and expanding the linkages between economic growth, EEM, structural transformation, and the goals of sustainable economic progress. The role of governance and institutional structures is crucial for ensuring that the transition to sustainable consumption, production, and investment patterns begins and continues in every nation. Demonstrably empirical evidence and the present constraints confronting the world tell us that in the absence of reform it is not possible to envisage that institutional and political systems will be able to facilitate the initiatives, measures, and policies needed to achieve sustainable economic progress.

Women’s economic participation and financial stability are key drivers of sustainable development, forming the foundation for equitable growth and long-term progress. This study investigates the relationship between macroeconomic factors, women’s economic participation, and sustainable development in Kazakhstan from 2013–2023. The analysis is focused on key indicators, including gross value added, deflator indices, shadow economy metrics, employment rates, and environmental protection investments. Two hypotheses were tested. Regression analysis was used: (1) structural factors such as economic growth, employment, and environmental policies significantly influence sustainable investments, and (2) women’s workforce participation positively impacts sustainable development. The results confirmed the first hypothesis, supporting those macroeconomic indicators, particularly deflator indices and the shadow economy, significantly impact shaping investment patterns. However, the second hypothesis is only partially supported, as women’s employment correlates with economic growth but is hindered by persistent disparities in workforce representation and access to resources. The findings of the research contribute to the existing body of knowledge on the dual role of macroeconomic stability and gender inclusion in driving sustainable development while identifying structural barriers limiting women’s full economic potential. The results reveal the importance of targeted, inclusive policies to enhance gender equity and sustainable progress, offering valuable insights for policymakers in Kazakhstan and other emerging economies.

In pursuit of sustainability, it is necessary to comprehend the evolving relationship between economic growth and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. This study conducts Index Decomposition Analysis (IDA) for comparative sectoral analysis of the world's ten largest GHG emitting countries across their eight sectors; agriculture, building, fuel exploitation, industrial combustion, power industry, processes, transport and waste, using latest available data from 2000 to 2023. This study disaggregates sectoral emissions to evaluate the extent to which economic growth has been decoupled from GHG emissions, thereby offering insight into national sectoral emission trajectories and sustainability progress. This study offers sectoral ranking of countries based on average GHG emission abatement during 2000-2023 and offers the sectoral GHG emission intensity in these countries relative in year 2000. The agriculture and building sectors demonstrated significant decoupling, abatement of GHG emissions by an average of 6.44 MtCO2 and 6.34 MtCO2, respectively, through sustainable practices. The fuel exploitation sector achieved modest abatement of 2.24 MtCO2, though emissions intensified in China and Indonesia. In the industrial combustion sector, GHG emissions abatement were recorded by 0.74 MtCO2 but intensified in several emerging economies. The transport sector recorded a slight intensity of 0.36 MtCO2, highlighting the urgent need for low carbon mobility solutions. The waste sector achieved the most substantial GHG emissions abatement of 16.31 MtCO2, led by USA, despite intensified in four other nations. The findings emphasized the critical need for tailored, sector specific policy interventions, technology adoption, and behavioral changes to achieve sustained decarbonization. The study contributes to the global discourse on climate mitigation by offering comparative sectors specific insights to align national energy structures with global decarbonizing practices.

This study examines the pivotal role of the International Labour Organization (ILO) in advancing the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), with a particular focus on promoting decent work and ensuring safe and secure working conditions. The article explores the mechanisms of international regulation of social and labour relations, highlighting both the historical and contemporary contributions of the ILO to global labour standards. It evaluates the transformative impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on progress toward achieving these goals, emphasising the emergent challenges and the need for innovative measures to enhance occupational safety and health. The study also analyses the ILO's historical legacy, which has shaped the international labour landscape over the past century, and discusses its current initiatives to address modern labour challenges. Special attention is given to the interconnection between economic growth, financial sustainability, and the implementation of international labour standards. By exploring specific strategies for improving workplace conditions and fostering financial resilience, the research presents actionable recommendations for global policymakers, organisations, and stakeholders. The findings underscore the importance of adopting a multidimensional and cooperative approach to resolving global social and labour issues. The study concludes that achieving the SDGs - particularly Goal 8 (Decent Work and Economic Growth) - requires strengthened international collaboration and a shared commitment to aligning labour policies with sustainable development objectives. This comprehensive examination of the ILO's role provides valuable insights into its strategic importance in ensuring equitable and sustainable progress in labour relations worldwide.

The purpose of this study is to determine the impact of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs) on Indonesia's economic growth from 2015 to 2022. The type of research used is quantitative descriptive research using time series data which is secondary data obtained from the Ministry of Cooperatives and Small and Medium Enterprises and the Central Statistics Agency (BPS). Simple regression analysis, t-test, and coefficient of determination (R2) were used for hypothesis testing. Based on the results of the t-test, it was concluded that MSMEs had a significant influence on Indonesia's economic growth from 2015 to 2022. Statistical analysis confirms a substantial impact, with MSMEs contributing around 80.2% to the variation in economic growth, as indicated by the coefficient of determination (R²). This shows that MSMEs play a crucial role in driving economic development in Indonesia during the research period. This study concludes that Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs) have a significant and positive impact on Indonesia's economic growth from 2015 to 2022. The contribution of MSMEs, which reaches around 80.2% of the variation in economic growth, emphasizes their crucial role in the country's economic development. This highlights the importance of supporting and increasing MSME activities to encourage sustainable economic progress.

This study investigates the impact of population growth and the Human Development Index (HDI) on economic growth and unemployment in East Kalimantan Province using path analysis with secondary data from 2014–2023. Population growth and human development are two critical demographic and socio-economic factors that often generate complex effects on regional economic performance. The results indicate that population growth has a negative and significant effect on economic growth, highlighting the pressure that rapid demographic expansion places on natural resources, infrastructure, and employment absorption capacity. Conversely, HDI demonstrates a positive and significant relationship with economic growth, suggesting that improvements in education, health, and income contribute to higher productivity and competitiveness. On the other hand, the direct effect of population growth and HDI on unemployment is negative but statistically insignificant, which implies that the availability of jobs and structural conditions of the labor market are more influential than demographic changes alone. Interestingly, economic growth shows a negative and significant effect on unemployment, supporting the classical theory that sustained economic expansion generates employment opportunities and reduces joblessness. Mediation tests reveal that economic growth does not significantly mediate the relationship between population growth or HDI and unemployment, underscoring that unemployment dynamics in East Kalimantan are influenced by broader structural factors such as sectoral concentration, policy effectiveness, and industrial diversification. These findings highlight the importance of integrating demographic management, human capital development, and sectoral economic strategies in policy formulation. Strengthening human development while controlling excessive population growth can provide a solid foundation for inclusive and sustainable economic progress in East Kalimantan.