THE BRONZE CAULDRON OF AVRĂMENI (BOTOȘANI COUNTY). ASPECTS OF COLLECTIVE AND INDIVIDUAL MOBILITY DURING THE LATE IRON AGE IN THE TERRITORIES BETWEEN THE CARPATHIANS AND THE VOLGA

Ships and boats form the foundations of the maritime connectivity that is a central part of our understanding of the ancient Mediterranean. While the general chronological sequence of sail and sailing-rig development is well established, the implications are less-well discussed. This article sets out how sails and sailing rigs developed in antiquity, with emphasis on the Greco-Roman world. Subsequently, instances of innovation are defined. Why specific pieces of maritime technology were, or were not, widely adopted is considered. Long-term technological continuity can be comprehended, and a shared maritime culture of sailing in the ancient Mediterranean is suggested.

Публикуются материалы изучения уздечных блях из памятников Алтая хуннуско-сяньбийско- жужанского времени (II в. до н.э. — V в. н.э.). Анализируемая коллекция насчитывает 357 экземпляров от 13 уздечных наборов из могильни- ков Берель, Булан-Кобы-IV, Верх-Уймон, Кок-Паш, Степушка-I, Сары-Бел, Яломан-II. В ходе классификации выделены 16 типов. Типологический анализ позволил определить датировку и генезис данных изделий. Ранние модификации (I в. до н.э. — начало I в. н.э.) представлены типами 3, 5, 11. Данные предметы разрабатывались на основе образцов от конского снаряжения хунну. Новый этап развития уздечных блях у населения булан-кобинской культуры приходится на 2‑ю половину IV–V в. н.э. и также отражает влияние центральноазиатской моды при формировании ременных гарнитур. Данные новации демонстрируют типы 1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 12, 15. Бляхи типов 8–10 и 13 могли быть заимствованы из конструкции местных наборных поясов II–IV вв. н.э. Результаты исследования не позволяют говорить о единой линии эволюции уздечных блях на протяжении II в. до н.э. — V в. н.э.DOI 10.14258/izvasu(2016)2-40

Introduction. The problem of selecting monuments of the 3rd century BC in the Early Sarmatian culture came into sight during the process of discussing the reasons for the fall of Scythia, when it became clear that the Early Sarmatian funerary monuments in the Northern Black Sea steppes are recorded starting from the 2nd century BC, a hundred years after the alleged destruction. Methods and materials. During the research process the scientists came to the conclusion that there are no imports of the 3rd century BC in the burials of the Lower Volga region and the Southern Urals. Some researchers stated the absence of monuments of this time in the indicated territories, while others continued to search for new approaches. As a result, they proposed the the method of “clamped” dating, which allows us to distinguish a stratum between well-dated complexes of the 4th and 2nd – 1st centuries BC. Analysis. In the course of clarifying the situation in the original Sarmatian territories, some researchers have decided to devide the reference early Sarmatian burial ground Prokhorovka into two groups, not only chronologically, but also culturally. The 3rd century BC became a time separating these groups, elusive according to these authors, not only in the Northern Black Sea region, but also in the Volga-Ural steppes. Opposing this point of view, supporters of the culture of continuous development in the 4th – 1st centuries BC pay attention to the unity of the funeral rite throughout the entire period, and the lack of well-dated imports is explained by crisis phenomena and migration processes, when old contacts with civilizations are crashing and new ones have not yet been established. The discussion that unfolded in the 90s of the 20th century with the accumulation of new materials and clarification of old dates periodically revived, updated with new participants, but the position of opponents has not really changed. The proposed article is devoted to evaluating the arguments of both sides. Results. The method of “clamped” dating is not the most universal, considering the constantly growing database of sources and its corrections. But this method works and many scientists continue to rely on it. A simple statement of the impossibility of identifying monuments of the 3rd century BC, when the existence of the monuments of this time is asserted, seems even more surprising than the assertion of the “hiatus” of the 3rd century BC, in the Volga-Ural steppes region.

A new season of studies on the Etruscan-Roman city of Musarna have allowed us to establish that the city was occupied from the end of the 4th century BC up to the beginning of the 7th century AD, and that its foundation depended on a strategic and economic need of the Etruscan metropolis of Tarquinia, of which Musarna maintained its role of colony up approximately to 280 BC, when the entire territory was conquered by Rome. Later, the inscriptions and the epitaphs found in the site and in the nearby necropolis show that until the 1st century BC the only language spoken in Musarna was Etruscan, and that at least throughout the Hellenistic period, the administrative organization remained based on the model of a large Etruscan city. Therefore, the infrastructural networks, only partially restored later on, are fully Etruscan, as are the entire defense system and some public buildings, including a market and a portico built during various stages of the renovation of the square between the 3rd and 2nd century BC, as well as sacred buildings, such as two temples probably dedicated to Hercules and Bacchus. The excellent quality of the documentation of the urban plan made it possible to undertake a study aimed at determining the city’s spatial tracking practice. Some important considerations and insights on the organization of the territory have already emerged from this study and, in particular, we were able to verify on a territorial basis the size of the design module which had already identified on an urban scale. While this may already be considered an important result, the evidence of a design set on particular geometric properties prompts the investigation to highlight particular aspects of the Etruscan plan.

The study deals with the question of determining time of the first appearance of the Sarmatians in the Crimean Steppe. Discrepancy between scientific interpretations of ancient written sources and dating by archaeological researches can be observed: while the former admit that the Sarmatians inhabited the Crimean peninsula in 3rd – 2nd centuries BC, the later assume the origin time to be the late 1st century BC. The monument considered in the article is burial 80 of kurgan Ungut-1 which partially helps to overcome this discrepancy. The studied monument is a single burial of a male positioned on his back with his head oriented to the north accompanied by a moulded pot, a fibula, a knife and a bead. These grave goods and, the first of all, fibula date back the burial to the early 1st century BC, and allow this Sarmatian complex to be considered the earliest precisely dated one in the Crimea. This fact indicates the presence of the nomads on the peninsula during the reign of Mithradates VI Eupator. At the same time, the examined monument does not mitigate completely discrepancies existing between ancient written sources and massive archaeological material regarding their timing. The only indisputable fact is that the nomads were there during the events of the Diophantine wars. However, their presence on the Crimean peninsula in earlier periods, especially in the late 4th – early 3rd centuries BC, remains disputable.

The form and stylistic details of some vessels discovered in Brad and Răcătău settlements dated in 1st century BC – 1st century AD, known in Romanian archaeological literature as ritual vessels with zoomorphic protomes or parallelepipedic vessels with zoomorphic protomes, have none analogies in the indigenous repertory of vessels. The Hellenistic plastic vessels or, more specific, ram-shaped Knidian reliefs have been identified as source of inspiration. Another vessel discovered in Răcătău, known as the ritual barrel-shaped vessel or the rider-shaped vessel, is also suspected to have Hellenistic models as source of inspiration. The research of Hellenistic and Roman pottery that circulated north of the Danube during the period between the 2nd century BC and the beginning of the 2nd century AD allows me to make certain observations on the presence of oinophora on Geto-Dacian sites and on their possible impact on local production.

Ostia, the ancient port of Rome at the mouth of the river Tiber (Italy), flourished until the 2nd Century ad, although massive siltation had already caused the abandonment of its lagoonal harbour in the 1st Century bc. In search of an alternative harbour site, geomorphological and geoarchaeological research was carried out in the ‘Fiume Morto’, an abandoned Tiber meander to the immediate north of the town. To reconstruct its complex development and evaluate the suitability of the river channel as a fluvial harbour, a transect perpendicular to the former river channel's flow axis was systematically explored by a new methodological approach combining electrical resistivity tomography, direct push‐electrical conductivity sensing and vibracores. Together with microfossil, mineralogical and geochemical analyses of sediment samples and 50 radiocarbon dates, in‐depth stratigraphic data support a detailed reconstruction of different Tiber channel generations. Results reveal a meander development closely related to distinct ‘cut and fill’ dynamics. Inactive river channels were repeatedly filled with lagoonal sediments, abruptly followed by phases of intense incision. Yet, the overall Fiume Morto channel structure remained stable and almost in situ over centuries, showing nearly no lateral changes since the southward shift of the Tiber River mouth in the first millennium bc. In the 1st Century bc, channel conditions favoured navigation and transportation of goods with large ships. Open‐water conditions, suitable for anchoring and landing activities, dominate from the 1st Century ad until 1557 ad, when the Fiume Morto meander was finally cut off and silted up within a short time. Within the fluvial deposits, sediments most likely related to tsunami inundations are preserved. These events occurred sometime before the 2nd Century bc, in the early 1st Century ad and in the 17th Century ad or later. Results are consistent with traces of tsunami influence found in Ostia's western lagoonal harbour.

The article is devoted to the semantic and chronological analysis of the images on the plate of white tuff discovered in the city of Stavropol. The central part of the relief is occupied with the image of table - an altar with hoisted bull head (in the background) and the hanging part of bull skin (in the foreground). Between the protruding edges of the hanging skin and lower to the ground (between the legs of the altar) an ancient Greek phrase carved in three lines. The composition is completed by flanking images of two figures in long robes depicted in profile, symmetrically turned to the head of the bull. The figure at the right is an image of a man with a long beard, the lower edge of which is bent forward (priest or king). The figure at the left is a female (queen). Both the man and the woman are holding ritual vessels in hands. The plot of bull sacrifice is typical for the cultural traditions of ancient Greece as well as for ancient eastern states. The fact of combining images and inscriptions peculiar of the Hellenistic culture and ancient Iranian mythology on the Stavropol altar should be associated with the religious policy pursued by the Pontic kings since the second half of the 3rd century BC till the Common Era. This policy was focused on the gradual replacement of local cults by Greek ones in the official pantheon. The reasons for the Asia Minor altar existence in the Stavropol Upland include: 1) the military expeditions of the Sarmatians to Asia Minor in 2nd - 1st centuries BC; 2) the establishment of political and economic ties by the North Caucasus population with the state of Seleucids in the 2nd century BC, with Parthia in the 2nd - 1st centuries BC, and especially with the kingdom of Pontus in the 1st century BC.

The paper publishes information about finds of Cypraea moneta (cowry) shells in archaeological sites of Eastern Europe of the VIII century BC – 7th century AD. There are 4 time periods during which cowry shells were distributed in Eastern European territories: 1. 8th – 6th centuries BC; 2. 5th – 1st centuries BC; 3. 11st– 5th centuries AD; 4. 6th – 7th centuries AD. Later the territorial (from Dniester region to the Kama region) and quantitative diversity of archaeological sites on which Cypraea moneta shells were found increased. They were of great value in the life of ancient Eurasian tribes. The proof of this is the variability of their use by local tribes. Cowry shells had both sacred and utilitarian uses. In the first case, they were used as amulets against the evil eye and maleficium. In everyday life cowries used as jewelry. They were sewn on women's dresses and headdresses, on the burial curtains, and were used as pendants for necklaces, bracelets and knives.

Paleoecology of the ancient city of Tanais (3RD century BC–5TH century AD) on the north-eastern coast of the sea of Azov (Russia)

There are different points of view regarding the date of the appearance of the early Sarmatian archaeological culture of the 2nd – 1st centuries BC within the Lower Don region. However, most researches have been of the view that the Lower Don region and the Northeastern Black Sea region were developed by the Sarmatians relatively late, namely not earlier than the second half of the 2nd century BC. The main objective of this study is to define the date of the first appearance of the Sarmatians on the territory of the Don region based on the analysis of the archaeological data from Sarmatian and ancient archeology, as well as information from the literary and epigraphic sources. According to the scale of the relative chronology there is plenty of early monuments in the Sarmatian antiquities within the 2nd century BC. However, the number of chronological indicators in Sarmatian burials of this time horizon is relatively low. On the basis of the Rhodian amphora with stamps, black-glazed cantharoi and Megarian bowls, the date of the earliest complexes can be set within the second or third quarters of the 2nd century BC. The arrival of the Sarmatians had a general destabilizing effect on the situation in the Don region and the Northeastern Black Sea region. The destruction of settlements and the devastation of territories were recorded on the Bosporus. The city of Tanais in the Lower Don region was fortified in the second quarter of the 2nd century BC. The first reliable mentions of the Sarmatians in official documents are dated to the end of the first – the beginning of the second quarter of the 2nd century BC (the treaty is dated 179 BC, Delphic manumissions). Further the authors conclude that the first appearance of the Sarmatians in the Lower Don region and the Northeastern Black Sea region is associated with the movement of nomadic tribes as a result of the expansion of the Xiongnu state, formed at the end of the 3rd century BC, which reached the Russian southern steppes as a result of domino effect.

The report presents a summary and preliminary discussion on the work carried out by the Swedish Institute at ancient Kalaureia between 2015 and 2018 in Area L. The excavations were focused on this area with the hopes of gaining a better understanding of the settlement which was situated south of the Sanctuary of Poseidon in antiquity. The excavations show that a large building was constructed probably around the middle of the 4th century BC in the western part of Area L. The full outline and functional use of the building has not yet been fully established but the building seems to have been in use in several subsequent phases. The excavated remains further suggest that dining activities were carried out in the southern part of the building. A stone laid feature (Feature 3) excavated immediately to the east, together with charcoal deposits, also provide indications of cooking in the 3rd century BC at least. The feature was, however, covered by the 2nd century BC when a new wall was constructed which seems to connect the building with a broader structural complex to the south. During this period parts of Area L seem to have been used for olive oil production, identifiable through archaeobotanical remains, multiple pithoi, and a press installation excavated in the central part of Area L. In the Late Hellenistic to Early Roman phase (either in the 1st century BC or 1st century AD) much of the building complex was again covered by a new construction fill, raising the level of the building.

For many years causes of the fall of Scythia have been a subject to a great deal of scientific scrutiny. The topic is still debatable. The author has recently published several papers, which justify Sarmatians’ involvement in the fall of Scythia in the late 4th and early 3rd centuries BC based on the written and archaeological evidence. Previously, the concept has also been supported by other researchers. These days, however, there are studies in favor of alternative versions claiming Sarmatians’ innocence in the events leading to the fall of Scythia. The main ideas of the studies boil down to the statement of no evidence of Sarmatians from the 3rd century BC being found not only in the North Pontic region but also to the east from the Don river. In the light of the statement, they implement the idea that Sarmatians’ appearance in the Eastern European steppes dates back to the time not earlier than the 2nd century BC. In the article, the author, given the anthropological and archaeological datasets, confirms the Sarmatians’ continuous presence in the Volga-Urals region without any chronological gaps between the 4th and the 1st century BC. The idea of the stage-by-stage settlement of the eastern nomads in the Volga-Don region and the North Pontic region is suggested. In the first stage, since the middle of the 4th century BC, the political situation underwent some destabilization processes due to the appearance of Sarmatians in the Lower Don region. The second stage is characterized by Sarmatians attacking Scythia in the first half of the 3rd century BC. For most of the 3rd century BC, Sarmatians’ main habitat was located to the east of the Don river. From there they conducted raids on the territory of the Northern part of the Black Sea region to plunder or collect the tribute. This concept is also supported by linguists’ new interpretations of written sources.

Introduction. In 2007 the archaeological expedition of the State Autonomic Cultural Facility of Rostov Region “The Don Heritage” excavated burial ground Krasny IV in Aksay district of Rostov Region. In the mound of barrow No. 13 a bronze rod-shaped frontlet plate with a hook, a bronze lunula-shaped harness pendant, six bronze bridle roundels, a bone cheek-piece, and iron fragments of the, most likely, bits have been discovered. Methods and materials. In the study the standard methods of archaeological analysis are used: comparative-typological, the method of analogies, chronological, and cartographic ones. The materials are the discovered artifacts. Analysis. According to the conditions of location and composition, the assemblage from barrow No. 13 can be identified as a ritual deposit. Such assemblages are known in special literature as “hoards”, “strange assemblages” or “votive hoards”. They have been found in mounds of barrows or in natural hills without traces of human burials. Usually they consist of cauldrons or situlae (often the rest items are put into them), bridle sets with peculiar frontlet plate with a hook, silver and bronze phalerae, helmets of Western types, weapons (most often spear- and arrowheads), expensive and socially prestigious items (silver and glassware, jewelry). The presence of all these items in the ritual deposit is not necessary. These sites are concentrated in geographically opposite regions: the basins of the Southern Bug, Dniester and Prut and in the east of European Sarmatia – in the AzovDonbass, Don and Kuban basins, the Lower Volga basin and North Caucasus. Results. Close parallels to the frontlet plate, bronze lunula-shaped pendant, and bridle roundels were found in the South Bug basin (Marievka), the Dniester and Prut interfluve (Brãviceni), Romania (Zimnicea), the North Caucasus (Prochnookopskaya, Geymanovsky, Giaginskaya), the Don and Volga interfluve (Kachalinskaya). All of these sites are identified as ritual deposits of the late 2nd – 1st centuries BC. The assemblage from barrow No. 13 should be dated to the same time. The ritual deposits of Eastern Europe could be divided into two chronologically different groups. The sites of the early group (3rd – early 2nd century BC) have appeared in the North Caucasus and concentrated in the North-Western Pontic region. It is assumed that they belong to the Хsaiai, Saudaratai and Thissamatai mentioned in the Olbian decree in honor of Protogenes. The sites of the late group (the late 2nd – 1st centuries BC) in the Northern Pontic Region, the Don basin, the North Caucasus and adjacent territories belong, most likely, to the Sarmatians.

Zeytinli Island, which is connected to Balıkesir province Erdek county, is one of the important archaeological excavation sites in our country. The anthropological evaluations of human skeletons obtained from Zeytinli island excavations gave important information about age and gender especially when the skull was taken into account and especially the use of radiological examinations increased the reliability of this information. In particular, theuse of radiological examination sincreas esther reliability of this information. Our study was carried out between 2007 and 2011 by taking the skulls of a total of 22 individuals, 6 females and 16 males between the 2nd century BC and the 12th century AD, uncovered as a result of the excavations performed in Zeytinli Island. The image staken by multislice computed tomography were transformedin to three-dimensional form with workstation software, and their interorbital, biorbital and bizygomatic measurements were performed. The skull measurement values were presented as median (range) with a whisker graphic. The median female and male values were comparedusing the Mann-Whitney test. The Pearson correlation test was used to examine the correlations between the measurement values. The fact that the p-value was below 0.05 was considered significant. Upon evaluating the data, the difference between the male and female interorbital and bizygomatic distances was not found significant (p>0,05). When the biorbital distances were taken into account, the biorbital distances of male skulls were found to be significantly higher compared to those of female skulls (p<0,05) . No significant relationship was found when the analyses of the correlation between interorbital and biorbitaland bizygomatic distances were examined. In our study, the bizigotic distances in the skulls belonging to male individuals are longer than the skulls of female individuals. This shows that the lateral protrusions of the male's skull are more prominent. This is an important criterion for gender discrimination.