Technology and the Psychology of Second Language Learners and Users

Contents: Introduction. Part I: Important Social Contexts in Research on Second Language Teaching and Learning. Introduction. M.E. Brisk, Bilingual Education. M.R. Hawkins, ESL in Elementary Education. P.A. Duff, ESL in Secondary Schools: Programs, Problematics, and Possibilities. D.E. Murray, ESL in Adult Education. S. Carkin, English for Academic Purposes. P. Master, English for Specific Purposes. C. Roberts, English in the Workplace. B. Tomlinson, English as a Foreign Language: Matching Procedures to the Context of Learning. Y. Kachru, Teaching and Learning of World Englishes. Part II: Methods in Second Language Research. Introduction. L. Harklau, Ethnography and Ethnographic Research on Second Language Teaching and Learning. L. van Lier, Case Study. A. Lazaraton, Quantitative Research Methods. D. Nunan, Classroom Research. A. Burns, Action Research. Part III: Applied Linguistics and Second Language Research. Introduction. T. Pica, Second Language Acquisition Research and Applied Linguistics. S.L. McKay, Sociolinguistics and Second Language Learning. J. Zuengler, K.M. Cole, Language Socialization and Second Language Learning. G. Kasper, C. Roever, Pragmatics in Second Language Learning. J.P. Lantolf, Sociocultural and Second Language Learning Research: An Exegesis. N. Markee, Conversation Analysis for Second Language Acquisition. R.B. Kaplan, Contrastive Rhetoric. S. Conrad, Corpus Linguistics and L2 Teaching. Part IV: Second Language Processes and Development. Introduction. G. Ioup, Age in Second Language Development. R. DeKeyser, A. Juffs, Cognitive Considerations in L2 Learning. Z. Han, L. Selinker, Fossilization in L2 Learners. M. Swain, The Output Hypothesis: Theory and Research. E. Tarone, Speaking in a Second Language. M. Rost, L2 Listening. T.G. Wiley, Second Language Literacy and Biliteracy. P. Byrd, Instructed Grammar. D.E. Eskey, Reading in a Second Language. I.S.P. Nation, Teaching and Learning Vocabulary. J.S. Hedgcock, Taking Stock of Research and Pedagogy in L2 Writing. E. Hinkel, Analyses of Second Language Text and What Can Be Learned From Them. Part V: Methods and Curricula in Second Language Teaching. Introduction. S.J. Savignon, Communicative Language Teaching: Strategies and Goals. S. Fotos, Traditional and Grammar Translation Methods for Second Language Teaching. J. Williams, Form-Focused Instruction. M.A. Snow, A Model of Academic Literacy for Integrated Language and Content Instruction. R. Ellis, Instructed Language Learning and Task-Based Teaching. M. Celce-Murcia, E. Olshtain, Discourse-Based Approaches: A New Framework for Second Language Teaching and Learning. C.A. Chapelle, Computer-Assisted Language Learning. N.J. Anderson, L2 Learning Strategies. Part VI: Second Language Testing and Assessment. T. McNamara, Introduction. A.J. Kunnan, Language Assessment From a Wider Context. A. Davies, C. Elder, Validity and Validation in Language Testing. M. Chalhoub-Deville, C. Deville, A Look Back at and Forward to What Language Testers Measure. T. Lumley, A. Brown, Research Methods in Language Testing. D. Douglas, Testing Languages for Specific Purposes. C. Leung, Classroom Teacher Assessment of Second Language Development: Construct as Practice. Part VII: Identity, Culture, and Critical Pedagogy in Second Language Teaching and Learning. Introduction. T. Ricento, Considerations of Identity in L2 Learning. M. Byram, A. Feng, Teaching and Researching Intercultural Competence. S. Canagarajah, Critical Pedagogy in L2 Learning and Teaching. Part VIII: Language Planning and Policy and Language Rights. R.B. Baldauf, Jr., Introduction. R.B. Baldauf, Jr., Language Planning and Policy Research: An Overview. T. van Els, Status Planning for Learning and Teaching. A.J. Liddicoat, Corpus Planning: Syllabus and Materials Development. R.B. Baldauf, Jr., R.B. Kaplan, Language-in-Education Planning. D.E. Ager, Prestige and Image Planning. S. May, Language Planning and Minority Language Rights.

The impact of the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) expansion has changed the dynamics of foreign language learning in Pakistan. Due to the increased regional importance of Chinese language, some public and private sector universities are offering Chinese as a compulsory language course at the undergraduate level. Due to the significance of forthcoming opportunities for local youth, one public university in Karachi, Pakistan hired native Chinese teachers to teach undergraduate students Chinese as a foreign language. The present study explored the beliefs of Chinese teachers based on their teaching experiences at the university. Data for this collective case study was collected through semi-structured interviews with three native-Chinese teachers and analysed thematically. The findings revealed that the Chinese teachers held positive beliefs about the prospects of Chinese language learning in Pakistan due to job opportunities. However, they seemed to hold reservations regarding the limited time span for the offered Chinese language course. There were also certain negative beliefs in connection with the traditional learning practices of the learners which the teachers considered barriers to the learners’ language learning. These findings depict the requisite exigency to address the issues highlighted by the Chinese teachers for effective Chinese language learning. The beliefs of teachers and their shared experiences need to be addressed for productive development in teaching and learning Chinese. Curriculum designers and decisionmakers should consider teachers’ beliefs to align the curriculum and teaching methodologies as per the provision that includes teachers’ experiences to further improve Chinese language teaching and learning.

This chapter reports on a survey of 304 Japanese university students who completed a range of formative computer-assisted tests while studying in an English as a foreign language (EFL) class. We consider students’ attitudes toward the use of computer-assisted language testing (CALT) for formative assessment tasks and, more importantly, whether automated feedback influenced their behavior and learning. In short, we discovered that students overwhelmingly (77.7%) prefer CALT (opposed to paper-based testing or homework), and if available, students generally retake the tests for revision purposes. The authors hope that this chapter can promote a more effective implementation of CALT for formative assessment, as well as provide practical insights into how language learners are interpreting and acting upon automated feedback.

China's global influence has increased with its spectacular economic development. With the growing trade and cultural exchange between China and other countries, there is a rapid rising need for Chinese language learning. Although Chinese language is challenging to learn due to its different intonations, complicated shapes, and considerable significance, it still attracts more individuals, organizations, and companies. Advances in mobile technologies provide new opportunities for language learning anytime and anywhere. To meet the diverse demands of students of language learning, many scholars have studied Chinese mobile language learning and developed many mobile applications to improve language learners' skills in listening, speaking, reading, and writing by leveraging the emerging mobile technologies. This chapter reviews earlier studies on mobile technologies employed in Chinese language learning and provides recommendations for future research.

In recent years, the demand for the acquisition of Mandarin Chinese language is in full swing globally based on the recognition of the economic and social importance of China. As a proactive response, the Ministry of General Education in Zambia included Mandarin Chinese as a second additional language in the secondary school Curriculum. However, there is a lack of exploring the epistemological beliefs and conceptions about Mandarin Chinese language teaching and learning in Zambia. A mixed research design is employed to study the epistemological beliefs and conceptions about Mandarin Chinese language teaching and learning in Zambia. A belief questionnaire was administered to 100 secondary school students learning Chinese as a Foreign Language (CFL). Semi-structured interviews were adopted to seek deep insights from 10 secondary school teachers on their epistemological beliefs and conceptions about Chinese language teaching and learning. The result shows that the students’ epistemological beliefs about the introduction of Mandarin Chinese language learning in secondary schools is key to enhance mutual understanding and friendship between the People’s Republic of China and Zambia. Also, the study results indicate that most of the students perceive learning Mandarin Chinese language as a window of opportunity for a good job and learning a new language. Nevertheless, the study results show that some teachers perceived the introduction of Mandarin Chinese language as a new form of Neo-colonization. This paper concludes that it’s fundamental for teachers in secondary schools in Zambia to review their epistemological beliefs and conceptions about Mandarin Chinese language teaching and learning and try to incorporate a SAL orientation using both literacy artifacts and cultural artifacts in teaching Mandarin Chinese language in secondary schools.

As Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL) has taken an important role in foreign language teaching and learning, not only is concrete data about the usefulness of technology- mediated environments for these purposes necessary, but also how the learning process is improved in such environments when learner training for CALL. The objective of this paper is to present an investigation which sought to explore empirical evidence regarding the effectiveness of a blended learning model, and also the use of language learning strategies in this kind of learning environment in order to increase its methodological potency with language learners. Consequently, this paper shows the findings of 2 experimental studies which aimed to provide data on (1) the efficiency of a blended learning (BL) model for language teaching and learning which combined task-based instruction, cooperative learning and optimal methodological principles for online learning (Doughty & Long, 2003), and (2) the use of learner training strategies for CALL in order to support and enhance the language learning process in this blended learning environment. The results from both studies suggest that the experimental group improved their language proficiency when compared to the control group. As a result, it is possible to conclude that (1) the blended learning design that included online tasks and cooperative instruction was beneficial for the development of language skills and (2) the use of learner training strategies for the blended learning model was highly beneficial for the students' language learning experience.

As Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL) has taken an important role in foreign language teaching and learning, not only is concrete data about the usefulness of technology- mediated environments for these purposes necessary, but also how the learning process is improved in such environments when learner training for CALL. The objective of this paper is to present an investigation which sought to explore empirical evidence regarding the effectiveness of a blended learning model, and also the use of language learning strategies in this kind of learning environment in order to increase its methodological potency with language learners. Consequently, this paper shows the findings of 2 experimental studies which aimed to provide data on (1) the efficiency of a blended learning (BL) model for language teaching and learning which combined task-based instruction, cooperative learning and optimal methodological principles for online learning (Doughty & Long, 2003), and (2) the use of learner training strategies for CALL in order to support and enhance the language learning process in this blended learning environment. The results from both studies suggest that the experimental group improved their language proficiency when compared to the control group. As a result, it is possible to conclude that (1) the blended learning design that included online tasks and cooperative instruction was beneficial for the development of language skills and (2) the use of learner training strategies for the blended learning model was highly beneficial for the students' language learning experience.

As learners are working individually in e-learning environments, scholars have started to pay attention to research on providing guidance and help them to take responsibility for their own learning. Therefore, this study aimed to shed light on both learner autonomy and scaffolding in e-learning environments. 35 international English as a Foreign Language (EFL) students who were taking a course supported with online learning resources (OLRs) including the English for Academic Purposes (EAP) Toolkit participated in the study voluntarily. Before taking the course, they filled a pre-questionnaire about their perceptions of learning, whilst a post-questionnaire at the end of the course. In the meantime, they were observed three times while carrying out activities in the Toolkit, and interviewed afterwards. Data from observations, interviews and questionnaires have shown that e-learning through scaffolding facilitates EFL learners’ language learning and scaffolding has a significant impact on learner autonomy and vice versa. This study sets the grounds for learners to use scaffolding, teachers to implement scaffolding, institutions to provide a scaffolded autonomous e-learning environment and designers to set up that kind of environment in order to enable the educational equality and opportunity for all learners.Keywords: scaffolding e-learning learner autonomy EFL learners the EAP Toolkit

The growing adoption of emerging technologies for language pedagogy, literacy development, and language assessment has accelerated computer-assisted language learning (CALL) as a major field of education and led to the establishment of major specialized journals, such as Language Learning and Technology, Computer Assisted Language Learning, and ReCALL. As technologies further advanced, we began to see individuals and schools increasingly adopt CALL technologies and use their interactive features to facilitate language learning. Consequently, CALL research began to gain momentum and expand its research foci during the mid-1990s (Levy, 2000; Uzunboylu & Ozcinar, 2009). This expansion gave birth to some independent and stand-alone subfields, such as computer-assisted language testing (CALT) (Parmaxi et al., 2013).

Life-long learning requires that language learners be well prepared for the target situations they will be operating in. To achieve this goal and to improve education for sustainable development, language teachers and language educators need to motivate language learners to participate in the target language. The present study, therefore, investigated the relationships between willingness to communicate (WTC) and possible selves, WTC and learner autonomy, and WTC and academic target needs in an English for Academic Purposes (EAP) context to open up new horizons for sustainable L2 learning. In addition, the present study was aimed at examining the extent to which WTC, possible selves, and learner autonomy would predict academic target needs. Five hundred and ninety male and female undergraduate students from two state-run universities in Iran participated in this study. The present study used four questionnaires to collect the data, and SPSS (version 25) was used to analyze the data. The findings showed a significant positive relationship between WTC and possible selves. Finally, results from hierarchical multiple regression revealed that WTC, possible selves, and learner autonomy were predictors of academic target needs. The findings suggest that the interplay of several variables should be considered if language learners need to actively communicate in L2 academic settings. Implications for sustainable development in L2 pedagogy are also discussed.

Creativity is useful for enriching the quality of learning (Maley, 2015). Using English for creative learning purposes is essential for studying on various university degree courses. Writing is potentially considered as the most important skill although it is a difficult skill for Second Language (SL) learners to master (Nunan, 1999). One of the possible reasons for this is that it has not been well-emphasized and developed in English language materials (Alkhaldi, 2014; Tomlinson, 2015). This study focuses on writing, particularly, creative writing in English for Specific Purposes (ESP) and English for Academic Purposes (EAP) courses. The main purpose of an ESP course and EAP course is to improve traditional and technical writing skills for students, and this might be at the expense of creative writing. This study explores creative writing and its possible challenges. It also discusses the significance of creativity, creativity and the language learner, creativity and motivation, creative writing, and the role of creative writing in ESP/EAP. Finally, it elaborates and recommends a systematic, principled framework based on a review of the related literature for developing creative writing in ESP/EAP courses.

This poster presentation describes an ongoing research project investigating the use of digital tools by university students in Qatar. The study also explores the effectiveness of having students inform each other of the usefulness of self-selected digital tools for English language learning. Rationale Mitra and colleagues (Dolan et al., 2013; Mitra, Leat, Dolan, &amp; Crawley, 2010) suggest that self-organized groups of learners sharing a common technological tool (traditionally a computer) offers a self-empowered and socially supported avenue of effective learning outside the classroom. Interest in digital tools facilitating self-directed learning has only increased with the development of the power and complexity of the World Wide Web (Blake, 2013; Saxena, 2013). Important reported benefits include greater learner motivation (Saxena, 2013) and the development of learning communities outside the traditional educational setting (Lord &amp; Lomicka, 2011). For language learners, the Web 2.0 has often been used to provide added opportunities to practice or use language outside of the classroom (Blake, 2013; Borau, Ullrich, Feng, &amp; Shen, 2009). Examples include the numerous grammar explanations and exercises, and the use of microblogs for language learning (Antenos-Conforti, 2009; Castrillo De Larreta-Azelain, 2013; Lord &amp; Lomicka, 2011; Wang &amp; Vásquez, 2012). Digital English language product revenues in the Middle East will exceed $215 million by 2018 (Global Educational Supplies and Solutions, 2014). However, little is known about how language learners in the region exploit these resources for self-directed independent language learning, and what resources they find helpful. An initial database search identified only one study addressing this issue. In this study, an online survey at Qatar University identified 18 educational uses to which students put their smartphones, including: accessing the university's online learning management system, discussing classes with classmates, and practicing online quizzes (Fayed, Yacoub, &amp; Hussein, 2013). In addition to exploring the ways in which students use digital tools and the perceived effectiveness of these tools for English language learning, our study investigated the efficacy of having students, rather than instructors, find, vet, and recommend digital tools for classmates. If successful, such an approach could alleviate English instructor concerns about being able to judge the appropriateness of digital tools for their students’ unique linguistic needs, learning preferences, and cultural sensitivities. This research is expected to contribute to the development of best practices in education in culturally diverse learning environments such as the transnational university campuses in Qatar. Research Questions and Objectives The research questions guiding this study are: What are the online practices of tertiary education students in an English for Academic Purposes (EAP) program in the Qatar? How are EAP students’ independent learning practices influenced by participating in a course that requires them to use digital tools to develop their English skills? The objectives of this research are: 1. to establish baseline attitudes and behaviours regarding digital tool use for language learning amongst English Language Learners (ELLs) in an EAP program in Qatar 2. to examine the effectiveness of the pedagogical approach of requiring participants to seek out, trial, and report to peers on their use of digital tools for language learning. This will be done by testing for a significant: i. within group effect ii. between group effect (treatment versus control groups) 3. to identify more details regarding participants’ motivations, experiences, and views related to digital tool use for language learning, along with their insights regarding the pedagogical approach used in the treatment. 4. to disseminate findings, methodology and recommendations to other institutions in Qatar, the Middle East, and abroad. Methodology This study employed a quasi-experimental, mixed methods approach, collecting both quantitative and qualitative data. The use of a control group and multiple measurement instances allowed testing for significant effects of the pedagogical treatment between groups (treatment versus control differences) and across time (pre- versus post-treatment results versus one-semester post-treatment). Students in the treatment group, as part of their coursework, were asked to set an individual language goal for the upcoming two weeks. Based on this goal, they were required to seek out and trial a digital tool. At the end of each two-week period, each student posted a report on their experiences with the tool to the course's online discussion page. Reports focused on the benefits and limitations of their selected tool and how it contributed to their goal. Students also read and replied to each other's posts. These two-week cycles were completed 5 times. Students in the control group completed their course, in the same EAP program as the treatment students, without the independent digital tool use component described above. At the beginning of the semester, the end of the semester, and the end of the following semester, students in the treatment and control groups completed quantitative questionnaires intended to assess various aspects of their attitudes and experience with using digital tools for language learning purposes. The questionnaires provided direction for focus group interviews conducted with treatment group students at the end of the semester, and one semester post-treatment. The focus group interviews provided more depth and clarity about students’ experiences and perspectives regarding digital tool use for language learning, and about the utility of having students find and share their experiences with digital tools. Results The preliminary results and analysis described in this poster presentation includes a comparison of the quantitative data of control and treatment groups at pre- and post-treatment. Qualitative data of the first focused group interviews is also presented. Conclusion While 96.7% of Qatar's population are internet users (Central Intelligence Agency, 2016.), little is known regarding its use as an educational tool. A better understanding of how language learners in this context use digital tools, and how digital tools could appropriately be used to improve language skills, would be of great importance to students and educators in the region. References Antenos-Conforti, E. (2009). Microblogging on Twitter: social networking in intermediate Italian classes. In L. Lomicka &amp; G. Lord (Eds.). The next generation: Social networking and online collaboration in foreign language learning, Calico Monograph Series, No. 9. (pp. 59–90). San Marcos, TX: CALICO Publications. Blake, R. J. (2013). Brave new digital classroom: Technology and foreign language learning. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press. Borau, K., Ullrich, C., Feng, J., &amp; Shen, R. (2009). Microblogging for language learning: Using twitter to train communicative and cultural competence. In M. Spaniol, Q. Li, Klamma, R., &amp; Lau, R. W. H. (Eds.), Advances in web based learning–ICWL 2009 (pp. 78-87). Berlin, Germany: Springer. Castrillo De Larreta-Azelain, M. D. (2013). Learners’ attitude toward collaborative writing in e-language learning classes: A twitter project for German as a foreign language. Revista Española De Lingüística Aplicada, 26, 127-138. Central Intelligence Agency. (2016). The world factbook: Middle East: Qatar. Retrieved from https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/qa.html Dolan, P., Leat, D., Mazzoli Smith, L., Mitra, S., Todd, L., &amp; Wall, K. (2013). Self-organised learning environments (SOLEs) in an English school: An example of transformative pedagogy? Online Education Research Journal, 3(11). Retrieved from http://nrl.northumbria.ac.uk/15077/1/SOLEs_-_Transformative_Pedagogy.pdf Fayed, I., Yacoub, A., &amp; Hussein, A. (2013). Exploring the impact of using tablet devices in enhancing students listening and speaking skills in tertiary education. QScience Proceedings: Vol. 2013, 12th World Conference on Mobile and Contextual Learning (mLearn 2013). Retrieved from http://www.qscience.com/doi/pdf/10.5339/qproc.2013.mlearn.1 Global Educational Supplies and Solutions. (2014, December). Digital language learning market to double in the Middle East by 2018. Retrieved from http://www.gessdubai.com/news-center/press-releases/digital-language-learning-market-double-middle-east-2018 Lord, G., &amp; Lomicka, L. (2011). Calling on educators: Paving the way for the future of technology and CALL. In N. Arnold &amp; L. Ducate (Eds.), Present and future promises of CALL: From theory and research to new directions in language teaching (2nd ed., pp. 441-469). San Marcos, TX: The Computer Assisted Language Instruction Consortium. Mitra, S., Leat, D., Dolan, P., &amp; Crawley, E. (2010). The self organised learning environment (SOLE) school support pack. ALT Open Access Repository. Retrieved from <jats:ext-link xmlns:xlink

A study on the time course of orthographic, phonological, and semantic activation of Chinese heritage language learners under different experimental tasks.

Understanding the value of monocultural acculturation orientation to the host culture (assimilation) and bicultural acculturation orientation (integration) for language learning is critical in guiding educational policy and practices for immigrant students. This study aimed to enhance our understanding on the relationship between acculturation orientation and second language (L2) learning. It generated two conceptual models to describe how cultural identification affects language learning as hypothesized in different theories on identity and L2 learning and tested these two hypothesized models in the immigration context of Hong Kong. A survey was conducted among a group of senior high school South Asian minority students on their learning of the language of the host culture, Chinese, to provide the basis for comparison. It was found that the students mainly adopted the bicultural/integration orientation and that bicultural orientation was the optimal acculturation orientation for learning Chinese. Bicultural orientation influenced the participants' Chinese language learning outcome through impacting psychosocial well-being and engagement with the target language and community. The findings suggest that we need to take both linguistic and psychosocial adjustment factors into consideration when conceptualizing the role of identity in L2 learning. Furthermore, this study cautions us against a context-independent stance toward the utility of assimilation for language learning.

This paper reports a study of the perceptions of English-speaking learners and teachers about the challenges and difficulties of Chinese as a Second Language (CSL) learning in England. The study involved a Likert-scale questionnaire and follow-up interviews with 37 university student learners, 443 school students and the 42 teachers of both groups.The questionnaires and interviews explored beliefs about language learning, about Chinese language learning and about language learning strategies. This paper focuses on the findings concerning the perceived challenges of speaking Chinese and of tones in learning Chinese. The findings of this study present a picture of teachers who are keen for their students to learn to speak and communicate in Chinese, and of students who are keen to take risks in speaking. However, in contrast to earlier findings about learners’ views about learning Chinese, the learners in this study claimed to be very tone aware and reported that they found listening and understanding Chinese more difficult than production. This is explored in relation to the pupils’ views about learning tones and pinyin and raises questions about the ways they address tones and pinyin learning in the context of their expressed aim of communicating and taking risks in speaking. The discussion raises issues about the possible effects of communicative teaching of languages in English schools. We ask whether an emphasis on communicative approaches may affect how learners address difficulties of the Chinese pronunciation system and the use of pinyin.