Handbook of Research in Second Language Teaching and Learning

HANDBOOK OF RESEARCH IN SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING AND LEARNING. Eli Hinkel (Ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, 2005. Pp. xxii + 1144. $260.00 cloth, $99.95 paper. Hinkel's ambitious tome is the newest addition to handbooks in the field of applied linguistics. The volume is composed of eight sections: “Important Social Contexts in Research on Second Language Teaching and Learning,” “Methods in Second Language Research,” “Applied Linguistics and Second Language Research,” “Second Language Processes and Development,” “Methods and Curricula in Second Language Teaching,” “Second Language Testing and Assessment,” “Identity, Culture, and Critical Pedagogy in Second Language Learning and Teaching,” and “Language Planning and Policy and Language Rights.” Each section includes an introduction and 3–12 chapters written by researchers who are well known in their respective areas.

The Douglas Fir Group Framework as a Resource Map for Language Teacher Education

Language assessment has been integral to language teaching for decades, and its importance has largely increased in recent years. As a result, research in applied linguistics has focused on developing more effective and efficient language assessment methods. This research aims to explore the relationship between English language teaching and classroom assessment, focusing on how language assessment can be used to improve language teaching and learning outcomes. The study was qualitative in nature; the data was collected through semi-structured interviews with English language university teachers and analysed through thematic analysis. The findings of the analysis showed that no assessment practice was inherently good or bad. The efficacy of any formative assessment technique was directly proportional to where, when, how and with whom to use it. The maximum benefit could be obtained only when the language assessment practices are situation-based and context-specified. There was nothing that can be called ‘tested, tried and perfect’ in all situations. Since applied linguistics and second language acquisition are expanding areas of research, the field is wide and open for future researchers to explore new dimensions of language assessment that facilitate language learning. The findings may be helpful, particularly for university administrations and policymakers who will gain insights into language assessment through this study and make improvements accordingly. Key Words: Applied linguistics, English language pedagogy, English language testing, Formative assessment practices, Teachers’ perceptions, Central Punjab, Pakistan References Al Musawi, A. S. (2011). Blended learning. Journal of Turkish Science Education, 8(2), 3–8. Alkharusi, H. (2011). Self-perceived assessment skills of pre-service and in-service teachers. Journal Pendidikan Malaysia, 36(2), 9–17. Aravinthan, V., & Aravinthan, T. (2010, January). Effectiveness of self-assessment quizzes as a learning tool. In Proceedings of Engineering Education Conference (EE 2010). Arshad, W., Maqsood, A., Zaidi, S. S., Haroon, M., Qadir, U. M., Sultana, U., ... & Sanaullah, S. (2024, September). Kalam E Iqbal: Current Requirements And Our Priorities. Bachman, L. F., & Cohen, A. D. (1998). Interfaces between second language acquisition and language testing research. Cambridge University Press. Begum, S., & Ambreen, M. (2021). Differentiated instruction based on formative assessment in Associate Degree in Education Program. Journal of Educational Research (1027-9776), 24(1). Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (1998). Inside the black box: Raising standards through classroom assessment. Granada Learning. Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101. Brown, H. D., & Abeywickrama, P. (2019). Language assessment: Principles and classroom practices (3rd ed.). Pearson Education ESL. Bugarski, R. (1987). Unity in diversity: Aspects of language policy in the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia. Sociolinguistica, 1(1), 1–12. Byrnes, H. (2013). Notes from the editor. Modern Language Journal, 97(4), 825–827. Cheng, L., & Fox, J. (2017). Assessment in the language classroom: Teachers supporting student learning. Bloomsbury Publishing. Creswell, J. W. (2014). A concise introduction to mixed methods research. SAGE Publications. Dewaele, J.-M., & Leung, K. C. (2022). Teacher proficiency and classroom practice in English as a Foreign Language teaching. ERIC. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1345752.pdf Dhindsa, H. S., Omar, K., & Waldrip, B. (2007). Upper secondary Bruneian science students’ perceptions of assessment. International Journal of Science Education, 29(10), 1261–1280. Einar H. Dyvik. (2024). The most spoken languages worldwide. Statista. https://www.statista.com/statistics/266808/the-most-spoken-languages-worldwide/#statisticContainer. Retrieved on 12-7-24. Flores, M. A., Veiga Simão, A. M., Barros, A., & Pereira, D. (2014). Perceptions of effectiveness, fairness and feedback of assessment methods: A study in higher education. Studies in Higher Education, 40(9), 1523–1534. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2014.881348 Goldman, S. (2008). Brief report: Narratives of personal events in children with autism and developmental language disorders: Unshared memories. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38, 1982–1988. Gordon, W. T. (2008). Linguistics for beginners. Red Wheel/Weiser. Green, A. (2013). Exploring language assessment and testing: Language in action. Routledge. Jawaid, A., Mukhtar, J., Mahnoor, D. P. K., Arshad, W., & ul Haq, M. I. (2025). ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNING OF CHALLENGING STUDENTS: A UNIVERSITY CASE. Journal of Applied Linguistics and TESOL (JALT), 8(1), 679-686. https://jalt.com.pk/index.php/jalt/article/view/370 Jawaid, A., Batool, M., Arshad, W., Kaur, P., & ul Haq, M. I. (2024). English language pronunciation challenges faced by tertiary students. Contemporary Journal of Social Science Review, 2(04), 2104-2111. https://contemporaryjournal.com/index.php/14/article/view/361 Kampira, A., & Meyer, J. (2021). A brief introduction to thematic analysis. Research Gate, 10. Karacop, A., & Inaltekin, T. (2023). Formative assessment in educational research published at the beginning of the new millennium: Bibliometric analysis. Journal of Formative Design in Learning. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41686-023-00081-9 Kazem, M. (2016). Effects of co-curricular activities on second language learners in higher education (Master’s thesis). Sakarya Universities (Turkey). Kelle, U. (2006). Combining qualitative and quantitative methods in research practice: Purposes and advantages. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(4), 293–311. Kuckartz, U. (2019). Qualitative content analysis: From Kracauer’s beginnings to today’s challenges. Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung/Forum: Qualitative Social Research, 20(3), 20. Lamprianou, I., & Athanasou, J. (2009). A teacher’s guide to educational assessment: Revised edition. Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789087909147 Lantolf, J., & Appel, G. (Eds.). (1994). Vygotskyan approaches to second language research. Ablex. Larsen-Freeman, D. (2000). Second language acquisition and applied linguistics. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 20, 165–181. https://doi.org/10.1017/S026719050020010X Larsen-Freeman, D., & Freeman, D. (2008). Language moves: The place of “foreign” languages in classroom teaching and learning. Review of Research in Education, 32(1), 147–186. Linn, R. L., & Miller, M. D. (2005). Measurement and assessment in teaching (8th ed.). Pearson Prentice Hall. Marzano, R. J. (2009). Classroom management that works—Research-based strategies for every teacher. Pearson Education. McDonough, S. (2017). Applied linguistics in language education. Routledge. Moita Lopes, L. P. (2009). Da aplicação da Linguística à Linguística Aplicada indisciplinar. In R. C. Pereira & P. Roca (Eds.), Linguística Aplicada: Um Caminho com muitos Acessos (pp. 11–24). Contexto. Myers, G. (2005). Applied linguists and institutions of opinion. Applied Linguistics, 26(4), 527–544. Omemen, M. (2019). Teachers and students’ views towards the impact of assessment practices on teaching and learning of EFL in the Libyan higher education sector. Plonsky, L. (2017). Quantitative research methods. In S. Loewen & M. Sato (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of instructed second language research (pp. 505–521). Routledge. Reinholz, D. (2016). The assessment cycle: A model for learning through peer assessment. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 41(2), 301–315. Rose, J., & Johnson, C. W. (2020). Contextualising reliability and validity in qualitative research: Toward more rigorous and trustworthy qualitative social science in leisure research. Journal of Leisure Research, 51(4), 432–451. Saneewong, S. (2020). Thai primary teachers’ thinking about formative assessment (Doctoral dissertation). Monash University. Scriven, M. (1967). The methodology of evaluation. In R. W. Tyler, R. M. Gagne, & M. Scriven (Eds.), Perspectives of curriculum evaluation (pp. 39–83). Rand McNally. Scriven, M. (1991). Chapter II: Beyond formative and summative evaluation. Teachers College Record, 92(6), 19–64. Shepard, L. A. (2000). The role of assessment in a learning culture. Educational Researcher, 29(7), 4–14. Wiliam, D. (2011). What is assessment for learning? Studies in Educational Evaluation, 37(1), 3–14.

Language learning

The study of language acquisition and instruction is not new to academics, but it never fails to excite linguists and teachers. The goal of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) is to help students develop their communication skills so that they can effectively communicate in a target language. Since its start in the 1970s, when the need for language learners to improve their communication skills was rising, this approach has received worldwide reputation. But since many educators still reject this method, many worries remain. According to Chomsky (1957), the four main aspects of language acquisition lexis, syntax, phonology, and morphology are focused on linguistic competence. Hymes (1971) argues that pragmatic, sociolinguistic, semantic, and grammatical considerations are more important. When it comes to teaching second languages, the theories put forward by researchers, have been game-changers for communicative language instruction. The communicative language teaching (CLT) technique places an emphasis on students' active participation in second language classroom activities and provides more opportunities for students to improve their communication skills compared to the grammar-translation method. Other traditional methods of instruction do not typically use this component. In the context of ESL instruction, this article delves deeply into the ideas and methods of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT). In particular, it compares and contrasts conventional methods of instruction with Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) and gives a brief summary of its advantages and disadvantages. In addition, the article delves into the latest advancements in CLT and the difficulties encountered while applying CLT in an academic environment. After that, the post helps educators understand Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) better. Furthermore, it suggests possible outcomes, such as creating classroom activities and encouraging student motivation, of utilizing CLT to teach English in a university context. References Abahussain, M. O. (2016). Implementing Communicative Language Teaching Method in Saudi Arabia: Challenges Faced by Formative Year Teachers in State Schools. (PhD). University of Stirling, Scotland. Abrejo, B., Sartaj, S., & Memon, S. (2019). English Language Teaching through Communicative Approach: A Qualitative Study of Public Sector Colleges of Hyderabad, Sindh. Advances in Language and Literary Studies, 10(5), 43–49. https://doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.10n.5p.43 Ahn, S. Y., & Kang, H.-S. (2017). South Korean university students’ perceptions of different English varieties and their contribution to the learning of English as a foreign language. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 38(8), 712-725. https://doi.org/10.1080/01434632.2016.1242595. Al-Nasser, A. S. (2015). Problems of English language acquisition in Saudi Arabia: An exploratory-cum-remedial study. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 5(8), 1612- 1619. Alsalmi, A. A. (2014). Challenges confronting teachers of English language. (Master). Taif University, Taif. Bachman, L. (1990). Fundamental Considerations in Language Testing. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Batawi, G. H. (2007). Exploring the use of CLT in Saudi Arabia. (Master). American University of Sharjah, Sharjah. Borg, S. (2017). Teachers’ beliefs and classroom practices. In The Routledge handbook of language awareness, (pp. 93-109): Routledge. Brandl, K. (2019). Communicative Language Teaching in Action: Putting Principles to Work. Pearson Education, Inc. Brandl, K., & Bauer, G. (2002). Students’ Perceptions of Novice Teaching Assistants’ Use of the Target Language in Beginning Foreign Language Classes: Preliminary Investigation. In W. Davis, J. Smith, & R. Smith (Eds), Ready To Teach: Graduate Teaching Assistants Prepare for Today and for Tomorrow (pp.128-138). Stillwater, OK: New Forums Press Brown, H. D. (2014). Principles of Language Learning and Teaching (6th ed.). White Plains, NY Pearson Education. Canale, M. & Swain, M. (1980). Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to second language teaching and testing. Applied Linguistic, 1(1), 1-47. Chomsky, N. (1957). Syntactic structures. Mouton. Courtney, D. (2020). Activities to Activate and Maintain a Communicative Classroom. English Teaching Forum, 58(1), 10-21. Dey, M. (2021). Psychological processes in language learning and teaching: Scoping review and future research directions. Journal of Psychological Perspective, 3(2), 105-110. Dey, M. (2023). The primary characteristics of English pragmatics in Applied Linguistics: Exploring the Key Features of English Pragmatics in Applied Linguistics. Inverge Journal of Social Sciences, 2(2), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1022/ijss.v2i2.25 Dey, M., Amelia, R., & Herawati, Y. W. (2023). Challenging the'Native Speaker'Ideal: The Impact of Native Speakerism on Language Education. Lingua Didaktika: Jurnal Bahasa dan Pembelajaran Bahasa, 17(2), 232-245. Dos Santos, L. M. (2016). Foreign language teachers' professional development through peer observation programme. English Language Teaching, 9(10), 39-46. https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v9n10p39. Dos Santos, L. M. (2017). How do teachers make sense of peer observation professional development in an Urban School. International Education Studies, 10(1), 255-265. https://doi.org/10.5539/ies.v10n1p255. Dos Santos., L. M. (2019). Science lessons for non-science university undergraduate students: An application of visual-only video teaching strategy. Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences, 14(1), 308–311. https://doi.org/10.36478/jeasci.2019.308.311. Dos Santos, L. M. (2020). The Discussion of Communicative Language Teaching Approach in Language Classrooms, Journal of Education and e-Learning Research, 2020. Journal of Education and E-Learning, 7(2), 104-109. Doughty, C., & Long, M. H. (2003). The handbook of second language acquisition. Blackwell Publishing. Harley, B., & Swain, M. (1984). The interlanguage of immersion and its implications for second language teaching. In A. Davies, C. Criper, & P. R. Howatt (Eds.), Interlanguage (pp. 291-311). Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Huang, S.-H., & Yang, L.-C. (2018). Teachers’ Needs in the Advancement of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) in Taiwan. TESOL International Journal, 13(1), 100-117. Holliday, A. (1994). Appropriate Methodology and Social Context. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Hymes, D. (1971). Pidginization and creolization of languages. London, UK: Cambridge University Press. Iwashita, N., & Ngoc, K. M. (2012). A comparison of learners’ and teachers’ attitudes toward communicative language teaching at two universities in Vietnam. University of Sydney Papers in TESOL, 7, 25-49. Jung, S. K., & Norton, B. (2002). Language planning in Korea: the new elementary English program. In Tollefson, J.W. (Ed.), Language policies in education: Critical issues (pp. 245-265). New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. Kachru, B. (1992). World Englishes: approaches, issues and resources. Language Teaching, 25, 1–14. Kennedy, P. (2002). Learning cultures and learning styles: Myth-understandings about adult (Hong Kong) Chinese learners. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 21(5), 430-445. https://doi.org/10.1080/02601370210156745. Kiato, S. K., & Kiato, K. (1996). Testing Communicative Competence. The TESOL Internet Journal, 2(5). Larsen-Freeman, D. (2000). Techniques and principles in language teaching (2nd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. Lee, J. S., & Lee, K. (2019). Perceptions of English as an international language by Korean English-major and non-English-major students. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 40(1), 76-89. Li, D. (1998). It’s always more difficult than you plan and imagine: Teachers’ perceived difficulties in introducing the communicative approach in South Korea. TESOL Quarterly, 32(4), 677-703.Littlewood, W. (1981). Communicative language teaching: An introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Lyster, R., & Ranta, L. (1997). Corrective feedback and learner uptake. Studies in Second Language Acquisition. https://doi.org/19. 10.1017/S0272263197001034. Natividad, M. R. A., & Batang, B. L. (2018). Students’ Perceptual Learning Styles and Attitudes toward Communicative Language Teaching. TESOL International Journal, 13(4), 104-120. Nunan, D. (1989). Designing tasks for the communicative classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Nunan, D. (1991). Communicative tasks and the language curriculum. TESOL Quarterly, 25, 279–295. Ozsevik, Z. (2010). The use of communicative language teaching (CLT): Turkish EFL teachers’ perceived difficulties in implementing CLT in Turkey. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Illiois at Urbana-Champaign, USA. Pennycook, A. (1994). The cultural politics of English as an international language. London: Longman. Pham, H. H. (2007). Communicative language teaching: unity within diversity. ELT Journal, 61(3), 193-201. Phillipson, R. (1992). Linguistic imperialism. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. Riggenbach, H., & Lazaraton, A. (1991). Promoting Oral Communication Skills. In M. Celce-Murcia (Ed.), Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language (pp. 125-136). Los Angeles: University of California. Richards, J. C. (2006), Communicative language teaching today. New York: Cambridge University Press. Richards, J. C., & Rodgers, T. (2001). Approaches and methods in language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Savignon, S. J. (1997). Communicative competence: Theory and classroom practice (2nd ed.). Sydney, NSW: McGraw-Hill. Saengboon, S. (2002). Beliefs of Thai EFL teachers about communicative language teaching. (Doctoral dissertation). Indiana University Bloomington, USA. Schulz, R.A. (1996). Focus on form in the foreign language classroom: Learners’ and teachers’ view on error correction and the role of grammar. Foreign Language Annals, 29(3), 333-364. Sawalmeh, M. H., & Dey, M. (2023). Globalization and the increasing demand for spoken English teachers. Research Journal in Advanced Humanities, 4(2). Spada, N., & Lightbown, P. M. (1989). Intensive ESL programs in Quebec primary schools. TESL Canada Journal, 7, 11-32. Souriyavongsa, T., Rany, S., Abidin, M. J. Z., & Mei, L. L. (2013). Factors causes students low English language learning: A case study in the National University of Laos. International Journal of English Language Education, 1(1), 179-192. Thompson, G. (1996). 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This paper reports on part of the first phase of a longitudinal project investigating the development of academic language in English as the Language of Teaching and Learning (LoLT) by Foundation phase learners in two different educational contexts. In the first context, the learners were all English additional language (EAL) learners taught by EAL teachers. In the second context EAL and English first language (L1) learners were taught by L1 teachers in integrated classes. The three groups of Grade 1 learners were assessed on the semantic subtests of the Diagnostic Evaluation of Language Variation Criterion, Referenced Edition, which evaluate the psycholinguistic processing skills underlying lexical acquisition and organization. Vocabulary learning is central to the development of academic language and literacy. There were statistically significant differences between the three groups on all measures. The EAL learners in the first context had significantly lower scores than the EAL and L1 learners in the second context, and the EAL learners in the second context had significantly lower scores than their L1 peers. Pre-school exposure to English and gender did not have significant effects, except on the subtest assessing fast mapping of novel verbs. The results provide information on what can reasonably be expected from EAL learners in Grade 1, suggest language skills that can be addressed to support the learners, and have implications for language in education practices with EAL learners in different educational contexts. Keywords : educational contexts; English Additional Language learners; vocabulary acquisition

This entry examines ways English for specific purposes (ESP) and English for academic purposes (EAP) support teachers in their endeavors to devise instruction to prepare English as a second language (ESL) learners for the demands of working or studying in English. EAP grew out of ESP and shares similar, pedagogical features with ESP. The entry describes a range of contexts in which specialized (ESP and EAP) language instructions typically occur and ways in which ESP and EAP are distinctive pedagogical frameworks. For learners, the provision of specialized language instruction that is based on identification of their work or study needs is widely understood to be motivating, effective, and efficient. However, for teachers of specialized English, working in this area can present considerable challenges in terms of developing their own knowledge of the specialist linguistic register, devising in‐house materials, and developing new courses or revising others, to meet the precise needs of their groups of learners. The entry describes ways the ESP and EAP research supports the work of teachers. It highlights the important role of linguistic inquiry into specialist language use and case reports of ESP and EAP teaching practices in particular contexts as major forms of support. It identifies lacunae in the literature and suggests future research directions.

Language learning

Language learning

This study aimed to explore the impact of ChatGPT on English language teaching, learning, and assessment. Specifically, it aimed to answer the following questions: 1) How can ChatGPT enhance English language learning, teaching, and assessment? and 2) What are the issues associated with ChatGPT in terms of language teaching, learning, and assessment? Utilizing Rapid Literature Review as a methodology guided by the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) framework, this study found that ChatGPT can support and enhance English language learning by providing meaning-focused inputs, offering scaffoldings during the production of meaning-focused outputs, giving feedback on the accuracy of learners’ language outputs, and facilitating fluency development through extensive language practice. Moreover, this study also found that ChatGPT can enhance English language teaching by assisting teachers in designing bespoke lesson plans, facilitating language learning inside and outside language classrooms, developing customized instructional materials, assessing L2 learning, and giving immediate, individualized feedback. However, despite the benefits it can provide to English language teachers and learners, its use in the classroom is faced with many issues such as inaccurate responses, academic dishonesty and plagiarism, skills deterioration, generic responses, inherent biases, privacy breaches, non-emotionality, technical limitations, educational inequity, and teacher job security threat. Detailed results and implications for policymaking and language teacher development are discussed.

Language learning

Reviewed by: Applying priming methods to L2 learning, teaching and research: Insights from psycholinguistics Renata Meuter Applying priming methods to L2 learning, teaching and research: Insights from psycholinguistics. Ed. by Pavel Trofimovich and Kim Mcdonough. (Language learning and language teaching 30.) Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 2011. Pp. ix, 254. ISBN 9789027213020. $54. Trofimovich and McDonough, and their collaborators, integrate a body of research furthering our understanding of the psycholinguistic bases of language learning and teaching. Uniquely, priming is the principle experimental methodology used to explore second language (L2) acquisition (e.g. the structure of the L2 lexicon), learners' understanding of L2 (e.g. listening comprehension), and L2 production (e.g. the use of particular L2 syntactic structures). PRIMING refers to the facilitation (and inhibition) of behavioral responses (e.g. response times) to a stimulus (target) as a result of prior experience with another stimulus in some way similar or related to it. In the L2 learning context, priming paradigms can be used to reveal the impact of the structure of L2 learning material on learners' subsequent mastery of (aspects of) L2. We can ascertain the nature of the L2 spoken (phonological) lexicon (using auditory priming), the structure and ease of accessibility of the L2 semantic lexicon (using semantic priming), and the L2 learners' acquisition of L2 syntactic structures (using syntactic (structural) priming). The research presented articulates why priming methodology can provide valuable insights into L2 comprehension and production in learners at different stages of acquisition, and how the findings are relevant to the teaching of L2 in classroom settings. The book links theory and application in L2 learning and teaching, and is therefore relevant both to readers focused on theory and to those interested in the more applied and pedagogical aspects of L2 learning and teaching. Researchers (graduate students included) will draw inspiration from the application of priming methodology in this arena, while L2 teachers will find this volume an accessible, evidence-based resource for best L2 teaching practice and learning outcomes. [End Page 675] The book comprises an introductory and a concluding chapter, bookending two parts. Trofimovich and McDonough briefly introduce priming methodology and outline the book's structure (Ch. 1). Part 1 (Chs. 2-6) centers on priming methods in L2 learning research with primary L2 learning and teaching implications as its main focus. Part 2 (Chs. 7-10) shares this focus but centers on innovative methodological approaches, that is, novel applications of priming and related paradigms. All contributions include comprehensive discussions of relevant theory; several chapters also include details of testing materials. The final chapter concludes with suggestions for future research. In Part 1, variations of semantic, auditory, and syntactic priming are applied to a gamut of L2 learning and teaching questions. Using semantic priming, JEANETTE ALTARRIBA and HUGH KNICKERBOCKER (Ch. 2) compare three methods of teaching L2 vocabulary, via direct translations, color pictures, and black-and-white pictures. L2 learners of Spanish learned new vocabulary paired with words, color pictures, or black-and-white pictures. In a crosslinguistic priming task, Spanish words (primes) preceded English word or nonword targets, and a LEXICAL DECISION had to be made (i.e. is the target letterstring a word or not?). Primes and targets were either related or not. If the decision process for letterstrings in the native language (L1) is influenced by knowledge of L2, faster response times for legal words would be expected for related pairs (i.e. priming). Indeed, when comparing groups of learners—each using a different learning method (experiment 1)—all methods appeared equally effective. Interestingly, when learners used all three methods (experiment 2), only direct translations and black-and-white pictures resulted in priming. Word-word learning showed the greatest processing advantage (faster retrieval of semantic information), an effect ascribed to the matching learning and testing format. While such learning may not be a solid basis for attaining L2 fluency, this method might help beginning learners construct a basic L2 lexicon, at least orthographically and phonologically, with direct links to L1 vocabulary knowledge. The findings also suggest that task demands associated with in-class learning activities should be carefully considered, especially when testing for acquired knowledge. Joe Barcroft, Mitchell S. Sommers, and...

Teaching Korean as a Foreign Language: Theories and Practices

Preface Part I * What Do Language Teachers Think About? 1 What Should I Know about Language Learners and Language Teaching Settings? Types of Language Learning Settings Learner Characteristics Younger Learners and Stages of Cognitive Development Identity and Language Learning 2 What Should I Know about Second Language Acquisition? Theories of Second Language Acquisition The Critical Period Hypothesis How the Theories Differ on Important Language Teaching Issues Implications for Language Teaching 3 What Should I Know about Language Teaching Methodologies? Language Teaching Methods What Is the Best Language Teaching Method? Content-Based, Sheltered-Immersion, Learner-Centered, and Task-Based Approaches to Language Teaching From Teacher-Centered to Learner-Centered Approaches Part II * How Do You Teach a Language? 4 What Should I Know about Teaching Listening? The Importance of Listening Comprehension Obstacles to Teaching Listening Comprehension The Listening Process Some Guidelines for Developing Listening Activities Activity Ideas Assessing Listening Comprehension 5 What Should I Know about Teaching Speaking? The Importance of True Communication in the Language Classroom Obstacles to Teaching Speaking The Development of Speaking Ability Some Guidelines for Developing Speaking Activities Activity Ideas Assessing Speaking 6 What Should I Know about Teaching Reading? The Importance of Reading The Reading Process Types of Second Language Reading Learning to Read in a Second Language Types of Reading Materials Helping Students Develop Effective Reading Strategies ESL Teachers and Content Reading Some Guidelines for Teaching Reading Activity Ideas Assessing Reading Comprehension 7 What Should I Know about Teaching Writing? The Writing Process Types of Second Language Writing Helping Students Develop Effective Writing Strategies Some Guidelines for Teaching Writing Activity Ideas Assessing Writing 8 What Should I Know about Teaching Academic English in Content Classes? The Development of Academic Language Generation 1.5 and Transnational Students Scaffolding, Contextualized Input, and Thematic Units Promoting Second Language Development in Content Classes Academic Literacy 166 Integrating Language Skills Using Thematic Units and Task-Based Activities Some Guidelines for Teaching Language through Content Activity Ideas The Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach (CALLA) Assessing Language in Content Classes Part III * How Do I Know What to Teach? 9 How Do I Assess Language Learning? Standards Issues in Language Testing Testing Approaches Testing for a Variety of Purposes Testing the Standards The TOEFL, the ACTFL OPI, the IELTS, and the TOEIC 10 How Do I Plan My Classes? Planning for Your Students Common Language Teaching Activities Differentiating Instruction and Supporting Learner Autonomy Part IV * Where Do I Go from Here? 11 So, Am I Now a Language Teacher? Thinking of Yourself as a Language Teacher Becoming Open to New Ideas about Language and Language Teaching Becoming a Better Language Teacher Your Future as a Language Teacher Beginning Your Journey as a Language Teacher Appendix A: The Beliefs about Language Learning Inventory (BALLI ) Revised ESL Version Appendix B: Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS) Appendix C: Teacher Foreign Language Anxiety Scale (TFLAS) Glossary Index

The present paper offers a modest contribution to the existing and ongoing attempt to find a place for narrative research in language education. The purpose is mainly to explore and highlight insights gleaned from narrative research with regard to narrative data and analysis. Due to the diverse and unique nature of second language learning and teaching, I would argue that gathering narrative data from second language learners are paramount and in line with the existing attempt to view second language teaching and learning in its own right and not as imitation of first language learning. To develop my argument, I will first discuss the position of narrative research in second language education highlighting the contribution and insights that narrative research brings to second language teaching and learning. I will proceed to define narrative research and explains the various tools to elicit narrative data as well as issues that narrative researcher needs to consider when collecting narrative data. The paper ends by looking at issues and strategies in analyzing narrative data. In all of the discussion, relevant research is cited to illustrate the point being discussed. The paper will end by highlighting that the discussion about narrative data and analysis are not aimed to replace other tools of data elicitation and analysis. Rather, it aims to invite teachers and researchers to see narratives as a viable option in research as the methodology continues to move forward.