Abstract
Athletic performance in competitive sports relies heavily on the ability to cope effectively with stressful situations. In contrast, some athletes report that their thoughts revolve around the future or past and not around the actual demands during competitions. In those specific stressful situations, the lack of focus like an unintended fixation on repetitive cognitions can have fatal consequences with regard to the performance. Especially when competitors are close in their athletic capabilities, differences in effectively coping with stress and mental stability may decide about winning and losing. One established factor of performing effectively under pressure is the individual tendency to either focus on taking action (i.e., action orientation) or on focusing on the own emotions (i.e., state orientation). It is widely acknowledged that state-oriented athletes have disadvantages in performing under stress. Moreover, the action control theory claims that state orientation is related to ruminative cognitions, which itself is assumed to impair performance in the long term. We tested this hypothesis in 157 competitive athletes from different sports (including individual and team sports). Regression analysis demonstrates a substantial correlation of failure-related action orientation (i.e., state orientation) with different measures of rumination (including general, clinically relevant, and competition-related rumination). In addition, general (i.e., content independent) rumination also correlated substantially with a rumination scale adapted specifically to sports-related competition. These results suggest (1) that a sports and competition-related ruminative mechanism exists and (2) that ruminative cognitions are related to the cognitive basis of state orientation. While our study does not allow for a causal interpretation, it provides an additional approach to investigate mental factors underlying inter-individual differences in athletic performance under stress and pressure.
Highlights
Competitive athletes distinguished themselves through conscious permanent acting under stressful conditions ascribable to their special environment, the participation in competitions, and the immediate consequences of their actions
The results of the correlational analysis revealed significant associations between failure-related action orientation (HOM) and the three rumination scales (PTQ, RuminationReflection Questionnaire (RRQ), KSR-WK; p < 0.05; alpha corrected with Holm, see Figure 1)
We determined the power of our regression analyses (G*Power 3.1.; Faul et al, 2009) with the sample size N = 157, an alpha level α = 0.001, and the obtained medium effect sizes; this analyses revealed a power of 0.9998 for the Perseverative Thinking Questionnaire (PTQ) regression (f 2 = 0.30), 0.9997 for the RRQ regression (f 2 = 0.28), and 0.9999 for the KSR-WK regression (f 2 = 0.32)
Summary
Competitive athletes distinguished themselves through conscious permanent acting under stressful conditions ascribable to their special environment, the participation in competitions, and the immediate consequences of their actions. Actionoriented individuals distinguish themselves through solving problems intuitively in adverse conditions (e.g., bad weather, broken equipment, and poor field or arena conditions), rapid acting without excessively thinking about the source or the person responsible, and developing different possibilities to act in demanding situations (Kuhl and Kazén, 2003). They typically act in high demanding situations as efficiently or even better as in comparable relaxing situations (Koole and Jostmann, 2004; Koole et al, 2012). Athletes with an action orientation can handle failures in high demanding situations more efficiently and draw the attention to forthcoming challenges
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