Systems as clusters

Abstract

General systems theory (GST) is a relatively young interdisciplinary approach which studies interrelationships among relatively homogeneous groups of components. Numerical taxonomy (NT) is very smilar in these respects. Ironically, discourse between these complementary approaches is virtually nonexistent. The purpose of this article is to help rectify this lack of intercourse by discussing continuities and discontinuities between the two approaches. The major thrust of this article is to examine the contribution that NT can make to GST. To this end we discuss five distinctions that are emphasized by numerical taxonomists and which can also be applied to systems. These are: (1) Q- versus R-analysis; (2) form of linkage among components; (3) strength of intrasystem relationships; (4) monothetic versus polythetic groups; and (5) agglomerative versus divisive methods of group formation. All of these have been emphasized more in NT than GST, and practitioners of GST could profit by becoming familiar with them. On the other hand, GST is ahead of NT in emphasizing boundary analysis and space-time analysis, among others. In addition to these discontinuities, continuities exist in the form of common concerns emphasized by both fields. These include synchronic versus diachronic analysis, naturally occurring versus artificially constructed groups, and levels or hierarchies. These two latter factors are very important for both GST and NT. Living systems are clearly natural (as opposed to artificial) systems, and are studied at various levels (e.g., organism, group, organization, society) in GST. The concepts of natural group and group hierarchies are also stressed in NT. All of the distinctions discussed can be applied to the total system at all levels. The contributions that GST can make to NT remain to be discussed in another article.