General Systems Theory and Geography

Abstract

PERHAPS in writing this paper the author has acquired one of the qualifications for admission to the Society of General Systems Research, by failing to understand the significance of general systems theory. But he is convinced that his failure to grasp the meaning of the theory reflects its deficiencies and not his own incapacity, a comforting and egocentric point of view which the rest of this paper seeks to justify. General systems theory was first developed in the United States and has only been introduced to British readers in recent years. In the geographical literature, it is only in the present decade that British workers have begun to use the term 'general systems theory' and to couch their arguments in the manner of the 'theory': two workers are particularly noteworthy in this respect, R. J. Chorley (I962) and P. Haggett (I965). D. R. Stoddart (I965) has reviewed the notion that geography can conveniently be studied in terms of ecosystems, which are 'a type of general system' (p. 245). As postulated by L. von Bertalanffy (I950), all things (as objects primarily but also as ideas) have connections with many other things and the significance of any one depends on its relationships with others. Hence, the unit of study should be not a single thing but a system of interrelated objects or ideas. In this way, the emphasis is placed on the connections and processes that link all kinds of phenomena. A simple example is given by Haggett (1965, 17) in terms of a domestic hot water system, in which a large number of pipes, valves, taps, etc., is linked with a stove and a tank through the circulation of water. Energy is applied to the system in the form of fuel for combustion and energy is lost by the withdrawal of hot water and by the loss of heat to the atmosphere of the house. The significance of any one pipe or union depends upon its place in the system: the utility of all the components, when they are assembled, is vastly different from their utility when they lie in a large heap awaiting the plumber. It would be difficult to deny this basic premise, that the significance of things depends very largely on the system context in which they are viewed. This premise forms the basis for E. A. Ackerman's (I963) plea for geographical work to be concerned with the connections between phenomena, for all phenomena to be viewed in terms of systems. 'Systems analysis' and 'operations research' are based on the concept of systems, of which the component parts are to be identified and the functional relationships established, with a view to rearranging the system to obtain given results more efficiently. To this extent, the systems approach is both well established and entirely legitimate. General systems theorists seek to go beyond this basic and rather evident point: