Syntaxonomic synopsis of the forest and tall scrub vegetation of Northern Algeria

This paper describes a study on the vegetation and floristics of the territory of Beit Jibrin in Palestine, in areas such as Forest the Snabreh (Qasa), Khallet Mahmoud and Khallet AL-Taweel, among others. In view of the lack of studies on the phytosociology and communities of plants in the south-west of Palestine, as this region represents a unique diversity of plants, and the addition of these plants to Mediterranean Basin region plants, we conducted this study to identify and describe the plants of this region. Beit Jibrin is an ancient Canaanite Palestinian city that belongs to inframediterranean and thermomediterranean thermotypes, as well as arid, semi-arid and dry ombrotypes. This area is very important floristically, with a high rate of endemism: of the 290 species documented, 37 of them (12.75%) were endemic to the region. Vegetation was sampled on twelve representative plots (releves) and analyzed using the Braun-Blanquet phytosociological analysis method. Two communities of forest maquis, macchie and steppe vegetation were found. Forest vegetation were represented by the Cupresso sempervirentis–Pinetum halepensis ass. nova. association, in the class of Quercetea ilicis Br.-Bl. ex. A. and O. Bolòs 1950, the order of Pinetalia halepensis, Biondi et al. (2014), and a new alliance: Cupresso sempervirentis–Pinus halepensis; forests maquis vegetation as the association of Pistacio lentisci—Quercetum calliprini ass. nova., with the suggested new class of Quercetea calliprini or palaestini in addition to Quercetea ilicis Br.-Bl. ex. A. and O. Bolòs 1950 and the order of Quercetalia calliprini (Zohary 1960), with an alliance of Quercion calliprini (Zohary 1960). These were adapted in arid, semi-arid, dry and sub-humid ombrotypes, as well as infra- and thermotropical to mesomediterranean thermotypes, with many different types of soils, such as limestone, brown ruinsenas, terra rossa and others.

The paper deals with the classification of plant communities that appear along postfire succession of Pinus brutia forests (Turkish red pine). The research took place in the Antalya region in the southern part of Turkey. Samplings were performed in nine areas, with different periods after fire: 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 12, 20, 40 years, and a mature forest with an estimated age of 60 years. Numerical classification and ordination analysis were used to determine the communities and to understand the temporal changes. The vegetation classification showed that separate plant communities can be distinguished along the succession line. It was found that immediately after fire semiruderal, subnitrophilous communities (Ajugo chamaepitys-Lactucetum serriolae, Eryngio falcate-Securigerion securidacae, Carthametalia lanati, Artemisietea vulgaris) appear, which remain until the third year, when low scrub vegetation up to 1-m high develops, dominated by low scrub species and termed garrigue (Phlomido grandiflorae-Cistetum salvifolii, Helichryso sanguinei-Origanion syriaci, Cisto-Micromerietalia julianae, Cisto-Micromerietea julianae); during the following years, up to 5-m-high scrub vegetation called maquis appears (Arbuto andrachnes-Quercetum cocciferae, Arbuto andrachnes-Quercion cocciferae, Pistacio lentisci-Rhamnetalia alaterni, Quercetea ilicis), which remains until the twentieth year when forest vegetation dominated by Pinus brutia (Glycyrrhizo asymetricae-Pinetum brutiae, Quercion calliprini, Quercetalia ilicis, Quercetea ilicis) develops. The work also discusses the classification of vegetation in the wider area of the eastern Mediterranean region by also indicating some syntaxonomical problems in Turkey.

AimWe identify the main forest vegetation types in Taiwan, provide their formal definitions and describe their species composition, habitat affinities and distribution.LocationTaiwan.MethodsA data set of 9822 vegetation plots with environmental characteristics recorded in the field or derived from digital maps in GIS was compiled from historical literature and an extensive field survey. Using expert knowledge, 6574 of these plots were used to build a classification into broad vegetation types. The units of the resulting classification were formally defined using a Cocktail determination key, which can be used for the automatic assignment of new vegetation plots to these vegetation types.ResultsTwelve vegetation types of zonal forests and nine types of azonal forests were distinguished. Zonal types in the subtropical region, from high mountains to foothills, are Juniperus subalpine coniferous woodland, Abies–Tsuga upper‐montane coniferous forest, Chamaecyparis montane mixed cloud forest, Fagus montane deciduous broad‐leaved cloud forest, Quercus montane evergreen broad‐leaved cloud forest, Machilus–Castanopsis sub‐montane evergreen broad‐leaved forest, Phoebe–Machilus sub‐montane evergreen broad‐leaved forest and Ficus–Machilus semi‐evergreen foothill forest. Zonal types in the tropical region, from high mountains to foothills, are Pasania–Elaeocarpus montane evergreen broad‐leaved cloud forest, Drypetes–Helicia sub‐montane evergreen broad‐leaved forest, Dysoxylum–Machilus foothill evergreen broad‐leaved forest and Aglaia–Ficus foothill evergreen broad‐leaved forest. Azonal types are Illicium–Cyclobalanopsis tropical winter monsoon forest, Pyrenaria–Machilus subtropical winter monsoon forest, Diospyros–Champereia tropical rock‐outcrop forest, Zelkova–Quercus subtropical rock‐outcrop forest, Pinus successional woodland, Alnus successional woodland, Trema–Mallotus successional woodland, Scaevola–Hibiscus seashore woodland and Kandelia mangrove.ConclusionsThe diversity of forest vegetation in Taiwan is strongly structured by the temperature and moisture gradient. Along the temperature gradient, five altitudinal zones can be recognized. Azonal forest types develop at sites affected by the winter monsoon, on steep slopes, rocky soils, in seashore saline habitats and in places disturbed by fire, landslides and human activities. Zonal vegetation contains a higher ratio of endemic and Pacific species and occurs in wetter habitats, whereas azonal vegetation contains co‐existing species from different regions and usually occurs in drier habitats.

Restoring the degraded areas with vegetation cover is an optimal strategy to mitigate land degradation. The objective of this study was to examine the composition and structure of woody vegetation in community and state forests in Tehuledere District, South Wollo, Ethiopia. The vegetation data were collected by sampling a total of 40 systematically laid sample plots (i.e. 20 samples in each forest type) and analyzed to determine woody species composition (i.e. number of species, frequency, density, dominance, and importance value index) and forest structure (i.e. diameter distribution, basal area, and biodiversity index). The vegetation structure was described by diameter class using inverse J-shaped as this type of distribution considered being indicative of a stable population structure or good regeneration status. The results revealed that significantly greater densities of seedlings and saplings were found in the community forest than that of the state forest. Moreover, a total of 45 woody species, representing 29 families were recorded in this forest. However, 29 woody species, representing 25 families were only found in the state forest, suggesting that 25 woody species were common in both forest types. However, 20 woody species were found only in the community forest, whereas only three species were exclusively obtained in the state forest. Woody plant densities were 10,881 and 9,501 individuals’ ha−1 in community and state forests, respectively. The result suggested that Juniperus procera was the most dominant species in both forest types. The community forest had a diversity value of 2.26, while the corresponding value for the state forest was only 2.07. Overall, as compared to the state forest, the community forest had a better status in several biological parameters. Generally, the results emphasize the importance of the relative advantage of the community forestry approach to restore, enhance, and maintain (e.g. enrichment planting, pruning, and selective cutting) the forest resources over the conventional or protectionist way of the state forest management. Therefore, intervention for legal framework and institutional development particularly through formal recognition of people’s ownership and right over the conservation management of forests is essential toward sustainable forestry.

Forest and scrub that is exposed to high water levels for long periods of time, either from groundwater or from floodwater, differs considerably from the zonal forest vegetation in terms of its ecology and species composition. These wet forest communities of bogs, swamps and floodplains are frequently described as azonal vegetation, as the influence of the hydrology is much greater than that of the climate. Throughout the following, it will be distinguished between the swamp and bog forests on the one hand, and the floodplain or spring forests and scrub on the other. The former are found on humus-rich and peat-forming mire soils with standing water. The latter occur on mineral soils with slow-flowing groundwater, spring water or accumulated rainwater. Not considered here will be the forest communities that are only moderately influenced by the groundwater, such as those of the Carpinion (oak-hornbeam forests, see Sect. 6.6).

In order to stabilize the defining concepts of the higher rank syntaxonomic units such as class or order, the criteria of floristic content and unity of origin are enunciated. This is done with the aim of preventing the fragmentation of the large classes and the subsequent typological inflation. For orders, the criterion of specific floristic content is discussed, with orders that have been described to encompass seral secondary forests or the separation of forest vegetation from that which is dominated by shrubs rejected, due to their weak floristic characterization. These criteria have been applied to two forest vegetation classes: the European temperate (Querco-Fagetea) and the Mediterranean (Quercetea ilicis). For the first, it is argued in favor of maintaining a single class for all temperate deciduous forests in Europe instead of dividing them into four. Within this single class five orders are distinguished: Fagetalia, Quercetalia roboris, Quercetalia pubescenti-petraeae, Alno-Fraxinetalia and Populetalia albae, rejecting the orders that have been proposed for secondary forests because they have few characteristic taxa. For the sclerophyllous and macchia forests of Mediterranean Europe, the Quercetea ilicis class can be split into two or three geographical orders, rejecting the Pistacio-Rhamnetalia alaterni as a shrubby physiognomic unit. Taxonomic reference: Castroviejo S (coord. gen.) (1986–2012) Flora iberica 1–8, 10–15, 17–18, 21. Real Jardín Botánico, CSIC, Madrid, ES. Syntaxonomic reference: Mucina et al. (2016).

The aim of the current study was to reveal the syntaxonomical structure of Pinus brutia Ten. Forests and the preforest communities in the vicinity of Antalya Gulf. Of the preforest communities, Dorsytaecho hastatae-Oleutum oleastri ass. Nova is individualized as a paraclimax association. Although little is known about the syntaxonomy of the communities of cliff, rupicolous, and mural communities in the thermomediterranean zone, these are connected with the classes Asplenietea trichomanis (Br.-Bl. İn Meier and Br.-Bl. 1934) Oberd. 1977 and Onosmetalia frutescentis Quézel 1964. In the west of the gulf, Phlomido bourgaei-Pinetum brutiae Akman et al. 1998 and its three subassociations were determined: quercetosum aucheri subass. Nova, phlomidetosum lyciae subass. Nova, and iridetosum unguiculariae subass. Nova. The red pine communities in the western side of the gulf are included in Ceratonio-Rhamnion oleoidis Barbero and Quézel 1979 of the order Pistacio lentisci-Rhamnetalia alaterni Rivas Martinez 1975 belonging to the class Quercetea ilicis Braun-Blanq. İn Braun-Blanq., Roussine and Nègre 1952.Two new associations, Phlomido leucophtactae-Pinetum brutiae ass. Nova and Glycyrrhiza asymetrica-Pinetum brutiae ass. Nova, which are rich in endemics, were determined particularly at the eastern coastal zone of the gulf. These were included in the alliance Quercion calliprini (Zohary 1962) Quézel, Barbero and Akman 1978 of the order Pistacio lentisci-Rhamnetalia alaterni of Quercetea ilicis.

According to literature data and field research conducted in 2019 and 2020, there are 346 vascular native and non-native taxa with the ability to survive outside crops (309 species, 36 subspecies and varieties) on the island of Rivanj (3,615 km2). Including 84 taxa in cultivation, we state that the total flora of Rivanj numbers 430 taxa. Those in cultivation are not included in the flora analysis. During earlier research, 45 taxa were recorded, while 385 taxa are listed for the first time in this work. In addition to the flora inventory, a taxonomic, ecological and phytogeographical analysis was performed. The results are presented in Tables 1–4 and Figure 2. The composition of the flora is dominated by angiosperms, in which dicotyledons (73.99%) are significantly more common than monocotyledons (23.99%). The flora also includes two ferns and 5 gymnosperms. By the number of taxa, the most represented families are Poaceae (13.01%), Asteraceae s.l. (11.85%) and Fabaceae (8.96%). The spectrum of life forms is dominated by therophytes (43.93%) and hemicryptophytes (24.28%), while plants of the Mediterranean floral element (42.77%) dominate in the phytogeographical analysis, which indicates the climatic conditions and geographical position of the island of Rivanj. Four endemics and four endangered taxa (Lathyrus ochrus – critically endangered, Carex extensa – endangered and two vulnerable taxa: Orchis tridentata and Parapholis incurva) were recorded in the flora, as well as five orchid. Eleven invasive taxa were recorded in the weed and ruderal vegetation of the settlement (3.18% of the total flora of the island). The investigation of the macchia and forest vegetation of the island of Rivanj and the islets of Sestrice was conducted in 2019 and 2020. The relevés were produced and analyzed according to the Braun-Blanquet method. Thirty relevés presenting the vegetation of the Quercetea ilicis and Pinetea halepensis classes were statistically analyzed and their dendrogram created. The results are shown in Tables 5–7 in accordance with the classic presentation regarding phytosociological relevés. Through the syntaxonomic analysis the Erico arboreae-Arbutetum unedonis Allier et Lacoste 1980 ex Foggi in Foggi et Grigioni 1999, Myrto communis-Pistacietum lentisci (Molinier 1954) Rivas-Martínez 1975, Pistacio lentisci-Juniperetum turbinatae Trinajstić 1987 ex Asensi, Díez-Garretas & Quézel 2007 and Myrto communis-Quercetum ilicis (Horvatić 1963) Trinajstić (1976) 1985 associations from the Quercetea ilicis class and the Pistacio lentisci-Pinetum halepensis De Marco, Veri & Caneva 1984 association. The autochthonous macchia and forest vegetation is mostly endangered by planted community of Aleppo pine on the islet of Mala Sestrica and on smaller areas on the island of Rivanj. North-west of the settlements on the Rivanj island a thick and impassable macchia grows. It is necessary to clear out the firefighting access paths and ban all activities that might cause fire.

In the course of the compilation of a checklist of the high-rank syntaxa of Europe, it turned out that for several syntaxa no valid and legitimate names were available. With this contribution, we aim to solve some of the problems by publishing or validating seven syntaxon names (1 order, 5 alliances, 1 association) and by proposing a nomen novum for one illegitimate alliance name. The validations concern the Artemisio albi -Brometalia erecti ( Festuco-Brometea ; xerophytic basiphilous grasslands in subatlantic-submediterranean Europe), Dictamno albi-Ferulagion galbaniferae ( Antherico ramosi-Geranietalia sanguinei, Trifolio-Geranietea sanguinei ; xerophytic basiphilous forest-edge communities of the Balkans and the SE Alps), Euphorbio taurinensis-Geranion lucidi ( Geranio - Cardaminetalia hirsutae, Stellarietea mediae; short-lived nitrophilous forest edge communities of Macedonia), and Gentianello amarellae-Helictotrichion pratensis ( Brometalia erecti, Festuco-Brometea ; meso-xerophytic basiphilous grasslands of NW Europe). A new alliance, the Alkanno baeticae-Pinion halepensis ( Quercetalia ilicis, Quercetea ilicis ; pine forests on ultramafic soils on the island of Euboea), is described to replace the nomen dubium Alyssion euboei . The Alkanno baeticae-Pinetum halepensis is described as a new association to serve as the type of the Alkanno-Pinion . Finally, within the Poterietalia spinosi ( Cisto-Micromerietea julianae ), the Helichryso barrelieri-Phagnalion graeci (phrygana communities on noncalcareous substrates in the south Aegean region) is described as new to science, and the nomen novum Hyperico olympici-Cistion cretici (phrygana communities on non-calcareous substrates in northern Greece) is proposed to replace the illegitimate Cistion orientale .

We made a comparative analysis of the floristic structure of 11 various-aged (30–50-year-old) forest and four steppe communities in the south of Kryvyi Rih region. We ascertained that the forest communities have low specific richness (2–90 species), whereas steppe ones contain from 167 to 251 species. The ten families leading in the species number are: Asteraceae, Poaceae, Rosaceae, Fabaceae, Lamiaceae, Caryophyllaceae, Boraginaceae, Apiaceae, Brassicaceae and Polygonaceae. Specific representation of the steppe communities depends on the geomorphologic formation, grazing pressure, soil cover composition; respective order of families differs slightly: Asteraceae, Poaceae, Fabaceae, Rosaceae, Scrophulariaceae, Lamiaceae, Caryophyllaceae, Brassicaceae, Apiaceae, Boraginaceae. The core of the geographical structure of forest vegetation is the species with a palaearctic type of range (30.3–54.5%), and in the steppe, species with the Black Sea area group (15.6–24.0%). The second and the third most numerous in forest groups are groups of species of transitional areas (3.6–23.3%) and holarctic species (7.0–17.2%). In the steppe communities, almost the same proportions are formed by the species of the palaearctic group and the plants of group of transitional areas (15.8–23.1% and 18.3–21.7% respectively). We revealed that in the forest and steppe communities the most numerous group in the spectra is the biomorph of hemicryptophytes (25.6–42.4% and 45.8–47.0% respectively). According to the structure of the above-ground shoots, identical proportions are formed by rosetteless and semi-rosetted species (38.3–60.5% and 37.2–56.7% respectively) in the forest communities, and semi-rosetted species (47.4–49.1%) in the steppe ones; as for the type of structure of underground shoots in forest communities, species without special underground formations (33.3–65.1%) and caudex formations (18.6–36.4%) prevail, and, in the steppe communities – caudex species do (39.1–47.9%); xeromesophytes (33.3–100%), and mesoxerophytes (32.9–40.6%) dominate in the hygrospectra of forest and steppe communities respectively; in heliospectra, there is the predominance of heliophytes (62.3–97.1% and 50.8–67.5% respectively); in trophoscopes, the mesotrophs are prevalent (57.1–98.4% and 47.0–52.1% respectively). The ecological and coenotic spectrum of forest communities is characterized by the domination of synanthropophants (36.3–58.6%), and in steppe ones – steppants (51.8–55.0%). We revealed the similarity of the floristic composition of forest and steppe communities (6.8–39.4%), and the largest index is noted for the plot with a strict nature reserve regime (19.4–39.4%). In forest communities, this value is 15.6–66.7%, and it varies in different-aged plantations of the same species. The analysis shows that there are significant differences in the floristic and biomorphological composition of forest and steppe communities; it confirms the concept of O.L. Belgard on the environment transforming function of artificial steppe forests, changing the biotic circulation, which is inherent in the steppes.

This article continues a series of publications devoted to vegetation mapping of existing and prospective specially protected natural areas of St. Petersburg. The “Osinovaya Roshcha” is a monument of garden art of the late XVIII–early XIX centuries. It is located on the northern border of St. Petersburg in a picturesque kame landscape, where sandy hills alternate with small bogged depressions and lakes. The landscape park of the Levashov-Vyazemsky estate was created in the forested area dominated by spruce, pine and birch. Since the 1780s oak, linden, ash, larch, fir, Siberian, Weymouth and other pines were planted there (Isachenko, 2004). A large-scale map of the actual vegetation of the “Osinovaya Roshcha” park and the adjacent territory was compiled for the first time. The natural forest, bog and meadow plant communities are characteristic features of the northern part of the area. The broad-leaved and coniferous trees, planted in the central part more than 200 years ago, have formed various plant communities, including mixed stands of local flora species and introduced trees. The southern part of the park is occupied mainly by broad-leaved introduced forest stands. Vegetation is divided into three sections in the map legend — natural, introduced, and formed by both native and introduced species. Each section represents vegetation types (or groups of types) (forest vegetation, mire vegetation, etc.); then forest communities are subdivided into classes of formations and formations, bog communities — according to the types of water-mineral nutrition. The mapped units are associations, subassociations and their variants, identified according the ecological-phytocoenotic classification. Territorial units — ecological series and combinations of plant communities — were also used in the map legend. Short-term secondary communities formed under various ecological (mainly anthropogenic) factors are subordinate to conventionally primary ones. They are indicated by indices at the legend numbers. Various types of shading were used on the map to distinguish natural and introduced vegetation. The vegetation map of the “Osinovaya Roshcha” represents a diversity of plant communities: they are forest (spruce, pine, birch) and bog (lowland, transitional, upland) communities typical of the region, as well as old-growth larch (Larix sibirica) and broad-leaved (oak, linden, elm, mixed composition) forests formed by introduced trees. Last ones are rare for the region. The plant community of Carex brizoides, found in the park, is of great interest among the communities of herbaceous plant introducers. This sedge is a rare species for St. Petersburg and the Leningrad region, which probably like the Poa chaixii was used for sodding the park soils.

Montane forest community composition of Ranial de Guaramacal, Venezuelan Andes, was studied along the altitudinal gradient on both sides of the range with different slope expositions. Thirty five 0.1 ha plots were Surveyed, with variable intervals of 30 to 150 meters between 1350 in and 2890 in and mile plots of variable size (50 m(2) to 400 m(2)) Were surveyed in dwarf forests located between 2800-3050 m. A total of 388 morphospecies with dbh >= 2.5 cm, corresponding to 189 genera and 78 families of vascular plants, were recorded from a total of 45 forest plots. The TWINSPAN phytosociological classification, based on both floristic composition and species relative abundance, revealed seven forest communities,it association level, grouped in three alliances and one montane forest order group. Three subandean forest (LMRF) communities and four Andean - high Andean forest (UMRF-SARF) communities are distinguished and described according to the Zurich-Montpellier method. The Geonomo undatae-Posoquerion coriaceae alliance contains two subandean forest communities (Simiro erythroxyli-Quararibeetum magnificae and Conchocarpo larensis-Coussarectum moritzianae); the Farameo killipii-Prunion moritzianae alliance contains one subandean forest community, (Croizatio brevipetiolatae-Wettinietum praemorsae) and one Andean forest community (Schefflero ferrugineae-Cybianthetum laurifolii) and the Ruilopezio paltonioides-Cybianthion marginatii alliance includes one Andean (Geissantho andini-Miconietum jahnii) and two high Andean forest communities (Gaultherio anastomosantis-Hesperomeletum obtusifoliae and the Libanothamnetum griffinii). Altitudinal zonation, forest floristic diversity, composition and forest structure is discussed between slopes and along the altitudinal gradient and compared, where possible, to other montane forests. In LMRF, Rubiaceae, Lauraceae and Melastomataceae are the most speciose of woody families. In UMRF, the Lauraceae family is still the most diverse, followed by Melastomataceae and Myrtaceae, while in SARF the Asteraceae and Ericaceae are the most species rich families. The structure of the montane forests of Ramal de Guaramacal becomes more compressed towards higher elevations. LMRF are dense and of medium height, with canopies up to 25 in tall, while UMRF canopies can reach up to IS in, and those of SARF are only 6-8 (10) m tall. Basal area was slightly increased on the North than on the South slopes and shows different patterns against altitude between slopes. More diversity and density of palms, lianas and climbers is clearly observed in LMRF, but richness of liana species is also important in SARF forests. Forest altitudinal zonation is variable between the North and South slopes of Guaramacal, with the forest zones of UMRF on the windward South slope, tending toward reaching lower elevations than on the opposite and drier North slope. There is a low altitudinal limit of the upper forest (Upper Forest Line or UFL) apparently caused by the top effect

A major dimension of pattern and process in ecological systems is the way in which species interact. In the study of forest communities, the phenomenon of linkage among forest strata (e.g., overstory and herbaceous layer) has been well investigated and arises when forest strata interact in ways that lead to causal connections between them. Whereas trees alter the light regime of forest herb communities, the herb layer can direct survivorship among seedlings of overstory species. Less studied, however, is linkage between forest strata and forest soil microbiomes. This review examines ways in which forest vegetation and soil microbiomes exert reciprocating effects on each other that can lead to linkage, beginning with a brief literature review of several phenomena relevant to how these effects occur. Because of the coincidence of the ubiquity of soil microbes with their almost infinitely small size, their interactions—both above and belowground in nature—with forest vegetation are particularly intimate. Although the most direct link, and certainly one that likely first comes to mind, is through root/microbe interactions, foliar surfaces and internal foliar tissues can support a diverse microbiome. Following the overview of potential mechanisms, examples from two separate forest studies of how linkage was demonstrated will be summarized. In each of these studies, linkage was evident through significant correlations among axis scores generated by canonical correspondence run separately for forest vegetation and soil microbial communities.

A survey is given about species composition of higher fungi in coniferous forest communities. Natural forest communities as weH as artificial forest stands are considered. Host range of mycorrhizal fungi, dependence of soil conditions (pH-value, nutrient content, moisture) and climate are discussed in detail. 1. Artificial spruce forests In comparison to natural Piceetum-communities the macromycetes flora of spruce plantation is reduced and varies within a wide range. It consists of frequent and ecologically unspecific species. The dominating fungal species are mostly acidophilic. A complied list of macromycetes species of spruce forests is given. It gives information about abundance, occurrence on different soil types, distribution in different altitudes and areas of Europe. Only some widespread litter decomposing and lignicolous fungi can abundantly be found in spruce plantations. The age of the forest stands distinctly influences the composition of fungal species and their abundance. Disturbances of forest stands caused by man change the natural macromycetes flora. The reduction of species in forest stands is directly dependent on the intensity of forestry management. After manuring with nitrogen or depositing chalk, the fungal flora is transformed by elimination of acidophilic species and by invasion of more neutrophilic fungi. 2. Fungi of natural Piceetum The fungal vegetation of natural spruce forests mainly consists of acidophilic macromycetes. Some neutrophilic species fructificate in Piceetum on chalkcontaining soil of deeply weathered limestone. A few species are exclusively distributed in the boreal or subalpine areas of Norway spruce (see list). Most macromycetes associated with Picea abies in natural Piceetum can also be found in spruce plantations in the lowlads. 3. Fungi in forest communities with silver fir Forest communities with silver fir, which grow in sites with good mineral sources and higher soil pH-values, have a characteristic macromycetes flora. Some of these macromycetes can also be associated with broadleaf trees (especially Fagussp.). In silver fir forests on acid soil, some acidophilic fungi commonly found in Picea-forest communities also occur. While soil inhabiting fungi of Abies are sensitive for climatical conditions. 4. Fungi in Pinus cembra — Larix decidua forests of central Alps Beside ectomycorrhizal species associated with Pinus cembra or Larix decidua, some other macromycetes, adapted to other species of the genus Pinus, can be found in these forest communities. Lists of characteristic species are given. The litter decomposing and soil-inhabiting Basidiomycetes mostly are unspecific, widespread, and common species of coniferous forests. 5. Fungi in pine forest communities Many ectomycorrhizal and saprophytical macromycetes living in pine forests are stenecously adapted to these forest communities. In may cases the ecological amplitude of Pinus sylvestris is broader than that of the associated fungi. Therefore, the fungal vegetation of certain pine forests characteristic species of several pine forest communities. Lists of important and characteristic species of several pine forest communities (pine forest on dunes, moor pine forests, Empertrum-Pinus-forests, Pinus sylvestris forests on chalky soil) are presented. The fungal species composition of pine plantations is discussed. In sandy (silicatic) pine forests a rich macromycetes flora thrives, but many pine forest associated fungi are strongly threatened. The decline of many macrofungi of pine forests on poor, acid soil is remarkable. But the fungal flora of all indigenous forest communities has to be protected. The problem is that in many cases the knowledge about composition of the fungi in forest communities is deficient. Many additional studies are necessary to elucidate the interactions between fungi and plants in forests communities.

Soil organic carbon accumulation and microbial carbon use efficiency in subalpine coniferous forest as influenced by forest floor vegetative communities