Phytosociological framework and conservation value of supratemperate riparian birch forest of the NW Iberian Peninsula.

Identifying regrowth forests with advanced mature forest values

Shrews (Soricomorpha) are among the most numerous small forest dwelling mammals in boreal forests ecosystems. In Norway large areas of sub-Arctic birch (Betula pubescens) forests have gradually been replaced by non-native spruce (Picea abies) plantations during the last century. This conversion has led to changes in forest floor vegetation and soil conditions which negatively influence invertebrates serving as prey for shrews and intermediate hosts for shrew endoparasites (helminths). In this trapping study we assessed if abundance and individual condition of common shrews (Sorex araneus) and prevalence and species richness of associated helminths, responded to spruce plantations in a manner that could indicate community level changes. Shrews colonized plantations in autumn, but never attained abundances comparable to the birch forest types. Shrews in plantations had lower body mass compared to those trapped in the birch forests. We identified 15 helminth species, and detected large differences in prevalence. Only one common helminth had significantly higher prevalence in the birch forest. By analysing prevalence of all species jointly, the highest prevalence was in moist birch forests and lowest in spruce plantations. Species richness estimates were lower in plantations, however not statistically significant. Although prevalence and species richness of helminths in common shrews were affected by tree species conversion, we judge the responses to be too weak and uncertain and the sampling and analysis too laborious to make shrew endoparasites suitable for monitoring purposes. However, monitoring abundance of common shrews is likely an efficient way of detecting changes in the forest floor fauna resulting from modern forestry practices.

Mature tropical forests at agricultural frontiers are of global conservation concern as the leading edge of global deforestation. In the Ituri Forest of DRC, as in other tropical forest areas, road creation associated with selective logging results in spontaneous human colonization, leading to the clearing of mature forest for agricultural purposes. Following 1–3 years of cultivation, farmlands are left fallow for periods that may exceed 20 years, resulting in extensive secondary forest areas impacted by both selective logging and swidden agriculture. In this study, we assessed forest structure, tree species composition and diversity and the regeneration of timber trees in secondary forest stands (5–10 and ∼40 years old), selectively logged forest stands, and undisturbed forests at two sites in the Ituri region. Stem density was lower in old secondary forests (∼40 years old) than in either young secondary or mature forests. Overall tree diversity did not significantly differ between forest types, but the diversity of trees ≥10 cm dbh was substantially lower in young secondary forest stands than in old secondary or mature forests. The species composition of secondary forests differed from that of mature forests, with the dominant Caesalpinoid legume species of mature forests poorly represented in secondary forests. However, in spite of prior logging, the regeneration of high value timber trees such as African mahoganies (Khaya anthotheca and Entandrophragma spp.) was at least 10 times greater in young secondary forests than in mature forests. We argue that, if properly managed and protected, secondary forests, even those impacted by both selective logging and small-scale shifting agriculture, may have high potential conservation and economic value.

The conservation value of forests and tree plantations for beetle (Coleoptera) communities: A global meta-analysis

Summary 1. Tropical rainforests are a global conservation priority. Robust arguments supporting rainforest conservation can attract funding and shape land‐use management. However, some popular assertions regarding the value of tropical forests remain largely untested. 2. This study tests the validity of two arguments in support of mature tropical rainforest conservation: first, that these forests should be conserved based on their value as potential sources of medicine. This argument requires mature forests to be better sources of medicine than alternative land‐use types, including secondary forests. Second, secondary forest use may help conserve mature forests by providing sufficient resources to buffer against resource extraction in mature forests. 3. The research was conducted in three communities in the Cordillera Azul, Peru, where 369 individuals from 66 households were surveyed. Participants recorded all flora and fauna collected in mature (>20 years) and secondary forests over 180 days in six use categories (food, medicine, wood, weavings, adornments and ‘other’). Ecological knowledge of secondary and mature forest species was assessed for male and female household heads. 4. Households used 346 folk species (as defined by local classification systems) from 3668 collection events. Individuals had better knowledge of secondary forest species, but more access to mature forests. Participants collected significantly more medicines from secondary than from mature forests. In other major use categories (food, wood, weaving, adornment), secondary forests provided fewer resources than mature forests. Participants collected a different set of species from secondary and mature forests, with only 130 folk species (38%) collected in both secondary and mature forests. 5. Synthesis and applications. The arguments to protect mature rainforests as sources of new drugs may be overstated, because secondary forests can provide more medicinal plant resources than mature forests, and landscapes that incorporate forests of different ages can maximize availability of medicinal plant species. Conservation efforts must take a landscape level approach given the spread of resource use across different forest types. Because of the heterogeneity of resource availability and use among community members, and the dynamic nature of resource use on forest frontiers, conservation should embrace participatory adaptive management approaches that incorporate a variety of resource users.

The importance of old secondary forests for understory birds in the tropical Andes

Characteristics, vulnerability and conservation value of active tufa-forming springs on coastal cliffs in the NW Iberian Peninsula

The national forest nature reserve in the Xiaoxing’anling area was studied. Based on the diversity of α and β, three forest types of grassland, birch forest, and larch forest were analyzed. Based on the diversity law of latitude gradient, the nature reserve was discussed in forest type. A difference in a diversity of different forest types was succession changes. A method based on quantitative evaluation of species conservation value was constructed. The community structure and species composition of nature reserves were systematically analyzed, and the conservation value of species and the conservation value of rare and endangered species were scientifically evaluated. The results showed that the Shannon Wiener index and Margalef index of grassland, birch forest, and larch forest showed a decreasing trend with the increase of latitude. Compared with the other four latitudes, the grassland, birch forest and larch forest of Dazhanhe Nature Reserve showed a decreasing trend from the north to south Jaccard index and Sorenson index, and the Cody index showed an increasing trend. The Jaccard index and the Sorenson index have peaks in friendly areas, and the species similarity is high, indicating that the friendly areas may be the interlaced areas of Xiaoxing’anling. The Shannon Wiener index and the Margalef index of the nature reserve from the early stage of succession to the middle and late succession increased continuously, reaching the maximum in the middle and late stages, and began to decline in the later stage of succession, which is consistent with the mid-specie.

Improving the accuracy of estimating greenhouse gas absorption remains an urgent problem. Identification of the ratio of carbon stocks in soils and stand biomass of young and mid-aged forests will allow clarifying the direction of carbon fluxes in forest ecosystems during the development period most productive for atmospheric decarbonization. Increasing the accuracy of carbon stocks in components of forest ecosystems is necessary to recognize the real absorption capacity of Russian forests at the international level. The purpose of this study was to determine the carbon stocks in stand biomass and soils of young and mid-aged forests in the Republic of Tatarstan, as well as their ratio for forests of different species composition and origin. The studies were conducted on 6 sample plots in the most common forest stands aged 10 to 40 years. Organic carbon stocks in soils, stand biomass and other components of forest ecosystems located on sod-podzolic soils were determined. Total carbon stocks, the share of individual components and the ratio of stocks in stand biomass and soils were calculated. It was found that carbon stocks in the biomass of young stands of natural origin ranged from 8.5 to 50.8 t/ha, while in artificial stands they were 123.0 t/ha, and in mid-aged forests – 102.6–173.4 t/ha. Maximum carbon stocks were found in the biomass of stands of mid-aged birch forest, minimum — in young birch forest. Total organic carbon stocks in the studied ecosystems can vary by up to five times and range from 41.4 t/ha to 208.4 t/ha. The share of stand biomass in the structure of total ecosystem stocks ranged from 20.4 % to 91.4 %. Carbon stocks in sod-podzolic soils of the sample sites varied from 5.5 t/ha to 38.9 t/ha. This was lower than the reference values, but even in this case, soil carbon stocks account for 4.1 % to 73.7 % of the total ecosystem carbon stocks. Clarification of carbon stocks in soils of forested areas should be continued. Perhaps, regional databases on soil carbon stocks should be created, taking into account not only the species and age composition of the forest, but also the taxonomic affiliation of soils. In a 10-year-old birch forest the ratio of carbon stocks in the stand and soil was 3:10, in a 25-year-old birch forest it changed to 11:2, in a young pine forest of natural origin it was about 2:1, in artificial pine plantations of the same age it was 22:1. In natural birch forests, during the transition from young forests of age class I to mid-aged forests, carbon stocks in stand biomass increased by 20.5 times. The results obtained demonstrate the active participation of young and mid-aged natural forests in atmospheric decarbonization, with the main carbon sink at this stage of forest ecosystem development occurring in phytomass. Carbon stocks in soil are more conservative. The ratio of carbon stocks in stand biomass and soils of young aspen and middle-aged oak forests was close to the values for natural forests of other species of the same age. Carbon stocks in stand biomass of artificial pine planting was 2.5 times higher than in natural pine forest of the same age (25 years). Further research is required to draw scientifically grounded conclusions on the contribution of natural and planted forests to carbon sequestration.

The article presents the results of studying the coenoflora of the mountain birch forests found in the Teberdinsky State Natural Biosphere Reserve (Karachay-Cherkessia). The work shows the current state and composition of the cenoses dominated by Betula litwinowii Doluch on the Reserve. The material to analyse the coenoflora was based on 45 standard geobotanical descriptions of 2 types of birch forests: the birch crooked forests in the upper part of the subalpine belt and the secondary birch forests on the places of disturbed indigenous cenoses in the forest belt. The range of heights of distribution of the studied cenoses above the sea level is 1,660 m – 2,260 m. The main types of flora analysis were performed: the general characteristics of the flora, the geographical analysis, the study of the biomorphological, phytocenotic and ecological spectra. The coenoflora of the studied birch trees consists of 326 species that belong to 176 genera, 66 families and 6 classes, which is 14.5% of the flora of Karachay-Cherkessia. According to the main biomorphological features, the ecological characteristics, and the predominant geographical elements, the coenoflora of birch forests of the TSNBR is similar to the regional flora. The leading role of the Fabaceae family, combined with its high content of the Ancient Mediterranean elements in the coenoflora of the Reserve’s birch trees, can be explained as the nature of the flora of the whole region and the increased influence of the TSNBR Mediterranean floras on the birch coenoflora formation. The significant role of species of the meadow ecological and phytocenotic group is explained by the predominance of thinned subalpine birch forests in the TSNBR.

The study of the relationship between forests and human life is an important part of environmental education. In this study, with the aim of clarifying the value of the riparian forest in environmental education, the history of the utilization of the riparian forest of the Kane River in Yamanashi Pref. and its landscape, was investigated.Historically, the forest along the Kane River has been utilized as a flood control forest, and was also utilized as a source of firewood and of fallen leaves for fertilizer. However, with the progress of technology, the value of the forest as a source of firewood and fertilizer has decreased over the past three decades, and several parts of the forest have been lost to development or have become unmanaged dumping grounds. In addition to the problem of dumping, in recent years there has been a growing demand for recreational areas, and a higher estimation of the historical value of the forest; and in 1996 the riparian forest became a forest park.In this forest park, the different landscapes show the history of the relationship between the river, the forest, and humans. For example, abandoned channels and sediment in the forest show the flood type on fan and the flood prevention function of the forest. Landscapes of open banks, flood control forest and groins are indicative of activities by residents to protect life and property from flood. Forest of oak and Japanese oak used appropriately as a source of firewood and fertilizer shows that the forest has been preserved. The recreational forest shows the value of the forest in offering spiritual well-being.In conclusion, the landscapes and the history of the riparian forest are suitable aids for the study of the relationship between the river, the forest, and humans, and for the study of the meaning of forest preservation. The riparian forest provides valuable teaching material in environmental education.

While mature forests are declining worldwide, tree plantations could provide habitats of conservation value for forest-adapted species. However, to what degree the fauna in tree plantations matches the diversity and composition of mature forest communities is still debated. In this meta-analysis, we used beetle species (Coleoptera) as biodiversity indicators to assess the conservation value (i.e. the log response ratio in species richness and abundance and the Soerensen similarity) of tree plantations versus reference old-growth forests. We tested the effects of biome, plantation age, tree species richness and origin, surrounding habitat and the trophic position of the focal guild on the diversity and composition of beetle communities.Our results showed that tree plantations generally harboured communities with 47% less individuals, 33% less species and a significantly distinct composition than old-growth forests. In the case that tree plantations had a similar number of species or individuals as old-growth forests, those plantations still displayed a 40% difference in species composition. Beetle abundance was significantly lower in tropical/subtropical plantations and for detrivorous species. We found no further significant drivers of beetle diversity and community composition in tree plantations.We conclude that, although tree plantations can provide crucial habitats for forest-adapted species, they generally harbour less diverse and significantly different communities, highlighting the conservation value of old-growth forests as biodiversity refuges. To properly assess the conservation value of plantations in different taxa, we propose the use of species composition instead of single diversity indices.

Modeling the age of tropical moist forest fragments in heavily-cleared lowland landscapes of Colombia

The diversity, composition and structure of vegetation in a cattle landscape in Matiguás, Nicaragua was characterized, and the floristic and structural differences of six types of habitats (secondary forests, riparian forests, charrales, live fences and pastures with high and low tree cover) were compared. A total of 3 949 trees of 180 species and 52 families were recorded. Forty six percent of the total trees reported for the landscape were represented by Guazuma ulmifolia (18.5%), Bursera simaruha (13.2%), Tabebuia rosea (6.3%), Enterolobium cyclocarpum (4.2%) and Albizia saman (3.4%). Many of the dominant species in the landscape were typical of open and disturbed areas. There were significant differences between the different habitats in the patterns of tree species richness, abundance, diversity, structure and floristic composition. The riparian forests had greater tree richness (p=0.0001) and diversity (p=0.0009) than other habitats. The floristic composition varied across habitats. with pairs of habitats sharing between 18.4 and 51.6% of the same tree species, and with clear differences in composition between the forested (riparian and secondary forests) and agricultural habitats. Of the habitats studied, the riparian forests and secondary forests seem to have greatest value for the conservation of the flora in the agropaisaje because they have the greatest species richness, and maintain small populations of endangered species. On the basis of the study, we recommend including agricultural landscapes in strategies to conserve tree diversity and suggest measures to ensure the maintenance of tree diversity in the Matiguas landscape.

Current vegetation maps show evergreen forests of Cambodia as one homogenous forest type. However, ecological field studies in the central plains demonstrated a heterogenous mosaic of different evergreen forest types, each with a unique species composition and ecological characteristics. Based on six botanical expeditions, we describe four lowland evergreen forest types: 1) riverine forest dominated byDipterocarpus costatus(Dipterocarpaceae); 2) tall dipterocarp forest dominated byAnisoptera costata(Dipterocarpaceae); 3) swamp forest dominated byMacaranga triloba(Euphorbiaceae); and 4) ‘Sralao', an open forest with a monodominance ofLagerstroemia cochinchinensis(Lythraceae). Ordination by non‐metric multi‐dimensional scaling (NMDS) indicated that the four forest types represent well‐separated floristic entities with Sralao as the most deviant community. The highest species diversity was found in the riverine forest ( = 2.65), followed by tall dipterocarp forest ( = 2.53) and swamp forest ( = 2.34), whereas the Sralao forest had the lowest species diversity ( = 1.64). We argue that botanical fieldwork remains essential to refine vegetation maps otherwise based on remote sensing, and that knowledge of species composition is essential to conserve Indochina's vanishing evergreen forest biodiversity.