Students Classified As Learning Disabled and Non‐Learning Disabled: Two Comparison Studies of Native Language Skill, Foreign Language Aptitude, and Foreign Language Proficiency

This article reviews empirical evidence related to college students classified as learning disabled (LD) and foreign language (FL) learning by examining whether there are differences between: (a) students classified and not classified as LD enrolled in FL courses; (b) LD students with and without IQ–achievement discrepancies and FL aptitude, proficiency, and achievement; and (c) students classified as LD who pass FL courses or receive course substitutions. Findings show that there are no cognitive and achievement differences between students classified as LD and non–LD students enrolled in FL courses or between students classified as LD who pass FL courses or receive course substitutions. Findings have shown that there are no differences in FL outcomes between students classified as LD with and without discrepancies. Research findings over several years show that classification as LD is unimportant for determining whether or not a student will exhibit FL learning problems or fail FL courses.

Fifty-four students were tested at specific time intervals over 10 years to determine best native language (NL) predictors of oral and written foreign language (FL) proficiency and FL aptitude. All participants completed two years of Spanish, French, or German. Each was administered measures of NL literacy, oral language, and cognitive ability in elementary school. A measure of FL aptitude was administered at the beginning of ninth grade and FL proficiency was evaluated at the end of the 10th grade. Among the variables, NL literacy measures were the best predictors of FL proficiency, and NL achievement and general (verbal) intelligence were strong predictors of FL aptitude. Results suggest that indices of NL literacy as early as first grade are related to FL proficiency and FL aptitude nine and 10 years later. Findings provide strong support for connections between L1 and L2 skills, and for speculation that "lower level" skills in phonological processing are important for written language development and oral proficiency in a FL.

Two studies examined students classified as having learning disabilities (LD) who had received course substitutions for the college foreign language (FL) requirement. In the first study, 42 students at one university were divided into groups and compared on measures of IQ, academic achievement, FL aptitude, college grade point average (GPA), and FL and English grades. Findings showed that most of the 42 students had been classified as LD in college after experiencing problems in FL courses. Comparisons based on students' performance on measures of FL aptitude, native language skill, and performance in FL courses showed few significant group differences. In the second study, the 42 students from the first study were compared with 86 students at another university who had also been classified as LD and received course substitutions for the college FL requirement. Comparisons on demographic information and measures of IQ, academic achievement, FL aptitude, college GPA, and FL GPA showed few significant differences between the two groups. Both studies suggest that students classified as LD at different universities exhibit similar demographic, cognitive, academic achievement, and FL aptitude profiles and that educators should not make the a priori assumption that students classified as LD require course substitutions for the FL requirement or experience problems with FL learning.

Twenty-five years ago, the author contributed a historical review of evidence on the foreign language (FL) learning problems of low-achieving and learning disabled (LD) students. Educators had proposed a new disability, FL learning disability, and developed policies permitting LD students to substitute courses or waive the FL requirement. The introduction of this new disability was premature because empirical evidence found no relationship between FL learning problems and LDs. Even so, several misguided assumptions about a unique disability for FL learning and a special relationship between FL learning problems and LDs persisted, and an LD diagnosis became the de facto criterion for FL course substitution/waiver policies. In this updated review, these assumptions and evidence falsifying them are examined. Cultural reasons for the assumptions about FL learning and LDs and the adoption of course substitution policies are proposed. The author concludes with recommendations for policymakers.

Critical thinking is among the variables that have recently become increasingly prominent in foreign language learning. However, there is a biased research focus on the role of CT skills, and empirical evidence on the relationships between CT disposition and foreign language learning is scant. This cross-sectional study aimed to bridge this gap by examining the effects of overall CT disposition as well as its sub-constructs (open-mindedness, perseverance, reflectiveness, inquisitiveness, and self-confidence) on foreign language proficiency. The study mainly discussed the research questions of how CT disposition was related to and to what extent it could predict learners’ foreign language proficiency. This research employed Pearson correlation analysis, regression analysis, and one-way ANOVA to analyze the data collected from a sample of 391 Chinese foreign language learners at Jiangxi Normal University and Zaozhuang University. The instrument adopted to assess the participants’ CT disposition was newly proposed in Chinese in the current study. The results demonstrated that both overall and sub-constructs of CT disposition were positively related to learners’ foreign language proficiency. Foreign language learners embracing different levels of CT disposition displayed significant differences in their foreign language proficiency. Except for perseverance, the other four dispositional traits (open-mindedness, reflectiveness, inquisitiveness, and self-confidence) toward CT were found to be significantly positive predictors of learners’ foreign language proficiency in the Chinese context. The positive impacts of CT disposition triggered in foreign language learning in the present research give an empirical grounding to the cultivation of foreign language learners’ CT dispositional factors to facilitate their foreign language development. Implications, limitations, and recommendations for future exploration and research were also discussed.

Recently, talk of a new type of learning disability (LD)--a foreign language learning disability, or FLLD--has made its way into the LD and foreign language (FL) literature. However, no empirical evidence has been published to support the concept of a "disability" for FL learning by those professionals who use the term. In this article, the author takes the position that there is not a distinct "disability" that can be called an FLLD. He reviews several years of research evidence indicating that any proposal for such a distinct entity is problematic. To support his position, he reviews problems with the current definition and diagnostic criteria for LD. He then cites the many difficulties inherent in the development and use of (a) a logically consistent, easily operationalized, and empirically valid definition of and (b) diagnostic criteria for the FLLD concept. The author then discusses how FL learning problems occur along a continuum of very strong to very poor language learners, and he explains how the proponents of an FLLD misuse the concept of FL aptitude. Finally, the author cites implications resulting from the research evidence on FL learning problems and use of the term FLLD.

Abstract: Two studies explore the relationship between foreign language teachers' perceptions of their students' academic skills and affective characteristics and their native language skills, foreign language aptitude, and oral and written foreign language proficiency. In Study I (replication), students who scored significantly lower on native language and foreign language aptitude measures were perceived by teachers as having weaker academic skills and also less positive attitudes, lower motivation, and higher levels of anxiety about foreign language learning than students who scored higher on these measures. In Study II (follow up), students from Study I and from an earlier study were followed through a second‐year foreign language course and divided into high, average, and low groups according to their scores on a proficiency measure. Results showed that low proficiency students were perceived by foreign language teachers as having weaker academic skills and less positive affective characteristics, and also achieved lower course grades than high proficiency students. Findings suggest that foreign language teachers' perceptions of their students' affective characteristics and academic skills are related to the students' levels of native language skill.

The objective of the present study was to explore the direct and indirect effects of academic boredom on foreign language (FL) proficiency in teaching English as a foreign language (EFL). As a prominent negative emotion, the detrimental effect of FL boredom on FL proficiency has been verified. However, the mediating mechanism between FL boredom and FL proficiency, especially the mediating effect of cognitive strategies, needs to be further explored. We recruited 505 Chinese EFL learners (236 female, 46.73%) from one secondary school using convenience sampling to verify the mediating role of elaboration strategies between FL boredom and FL proficiency. Structural equation modelling (SEM) and mediation analysis yielded two major findings. First, FL boredom was negatively correlated with FL proficiency. Second, after controlling for gender and age, FL boredom, mediated through elaboration strategies, influenced FL proficiency. Third, elaboration strategies partially mediated the relationship between FL boredom and proficiency. Implications and limitations are discussed.

In this study, we compared the cognitive, academic achievement, and demographic profiles of 46 students from one university who had been classified as learning disabled (LD) and had received permission to substitute courses for the university's foreign language (FL) requirement (petition group) with the profiles of 21 students from the same university who had been classified as LD and had fulfilled the university's FL requirement by passing FL courses (nonpetition group). Results showed no significant differences between the two groups on measures of reading, mathematics, written language, American College Testing score, and graduating grade point average when IQ was used as a covariate. More petition than nonpetition students had at least a 1.0 SD discrepancy between IQ and achievement and had been referred only for FL learning problems. More nonpetition than petition students had taken an FL in college and received accommodations in the FL. The two groups together appeared to constitute a heterogeneous group of learners, with more than half failing to meet a minimum discrepancy criterion for classification as LD. The discussion addresses the classification system for LD, the process for determining the presence of FL learning problems and how to address them, and directions for further research.

This study compared the perceptions of low (LR) and high risk (HR) students and students with learning disabilities (LD) enrolled in first year high school foreign language courses on a questionnaire‐the Foreign Language Attitude and Perceptions Survey (FLAPS)‐designed to elicit responses to questions relating to their foreign language academic history, learning attitudes, and academic skills. LR and HR students were identified by an author‐designed screening instrument, foreign language grade, and teacher recommendation. Students with LD were enrolled in special, self‐contained sections of a foreign language course. Using a MANOVA procedure, results showed overall significant differences among the three groups on the FLAPS. Individual ANOVA results showed that LR students reported significantly higher estimated grades in the foreign language courses and expressed more positive attitudes about their academic skills than HR andLD students. HR and LD students perceived themselves as lacking the academic skills to master a foreign language, and their attitudes about foreign language learning were generally less positive than the LR group. Differences between HR and LD students were found on only two questions, relating to perceived levels of distractibility and spelling. All three groups expressed positive attitudes about wanting to learn a foreign language. Findings are interpreted in light of the Linguistic Coding Deficit Hypothesis (Sparks, Ganschow, and Pohlman, 48), which speculates that students with foreign language learning problems have underlying but subtle native language learning difficulties, and that affective differences are, most likely, consequences of these native language differences.

This study aims to explore the foreign language (FL) aptitude components as one of the crucial factors of successful language learning. Having conducted the research, the following results and conclusions have been drawn. FL aptitude is defined as individual psychological characteristics which determine and predict the dynamics of mastering FL, that is the rate, speed and progress of learning. The components of FL aptitude include language abilities (phonetic, lexical, grammatical and stylistic abilities), speech abilities (abilities to listening, speaking, reading and writing), communicative abilities, the sense of language, thinking in a foreign language, linguistic creativity, motivation. The sense of language and thinking in a foreign language is considered to be the central abilities in FL aptitude. The structure of FL aptitude forms an integral unity, since it is characterized by the interdependence and interaction of all its components. Moreover, it is closely related to general intelligence. Therefore, it is possible to single out auditory and cognitive abilities which are common for all above mentioned abilities and play a key role in determining the level of their development. These abilities involve auditory differential sensitivity (phonemic awareness and intonation hearing), memory (iconic, echoic, motor, working, short-term, long-term, verbal and the ability of involuntary remembering), verbal thinking and inductive reasoning, cognitive processing speed (the rate of speech, the rate of associative processes and the rate of processing new information). According to the level of FL aptitude development there are three styles of FL learning: communicative, cognitive and mixed. The difference between these three styles lies in the fact that the first style refers to language acquisition and the second and the third styles refer to language learning. Consequently, the direct (natural) methods of FL learning are more appropriate for the representatives of the cognitive style and the indirect methods or the combination of the direct and indirect methods is more beneficial for the representatives of the cognitive and mixed styles. Taking into account the results of our research, we suppose it is expedient to run the tests for revealing and measuring FL aptitude which is normally difficult to observe. It allows the educators to detect the factors which make it difficult for students to learn FL and to find the effective ways to eliminate or relieve them.

Foreign language (FL) learning is influenced by both behavioral and motivational factors, with beliefs, proficiency, and social identity shaping learners’ perceptions, self-concept, and intergroup dynamics. This study investigates how FL proficiency influences beliefs and social perceptions about individuals involved in FL learning. The aim of the study is to identify differences in these beliefs between low- and high-proficiency FL learners, focusing on factors such as sociability, vitality, and intergroup bias. A semantic differential instrument was administered to 180 participants (90 low-proficiency and 90 high-proficiency FL learners) in Russia who rated individuals associated with various FL learning roles. Principal Component Analysis and pooled data methods were used to analyze the underlying dimensions of beliefs, while Spearman correlation coefficients examined relationships between constructs. Results revealed significant differences in belief structures: high-proficiency FL participants perceived high- and low-proficiency FL roles as more friendly, sociable, and active compared to low-proficiency FL participants. High-proficiency FL learners also exhibited in-group favoritism toward high-proficiency FL roles and out-group bias against low-proficiency FL roles. The findings suggest that FL proficiency shapes social perceptions, with high-proficiency FL learners appearing to hold more integrated and polarized views. This study highlights the dynamic nature of language learning beliefs and their implications for intergroup relations. The results underscore the need for growth mindset-based language education, anti-bias interventions to counter negative stereotypes of migrants with low language proficiency, strategies to mitigate linguistic elitism among advanced learners, and targeted support to help low-proficiency learners develop integrated cognitive frameworks about language learning.

This research was undertaken against the backdrop of the realization—albeit with scanty empirical evidence—that trainee translators do not always possess the much-needed foreign language (FL) proficiency to excel in the profession upon graduation. The study describes how a semester-long graduate-level computer-assisted translation (CAT) course was designed to improve the FL proficiency of 19 trainees (12 female and 5 male), whose FL knowledge, or lack thereof, was determined using a pre-study questionnaire to gather data on perceived FL proficiency, years of FL learning, and number of pertinent courses taken. The CAT course, informed by the questionnaire findings, was grounded in the constructivist learning approach, which foregrounded self-regulated learning (SRL), peer collaboration, and scaffolded instructions and feedback. Based on data gathered from the trainees’ collaboratively translated texts, post-study questionnaire results, and SRL logs, it was found that the trainees’ grammar, writing, vocabulary, and delivery errors significantly reduced as they translated more content. These practical implications of the study’s findings are crucial for understanding of FL’s place in and successful incorporation into translation programs and course designs.

Dyslexic students have significant problems with learning a foreign language. Foreign language (FL) learning is built upon the native language (L1). The skills such as phonological/ orthographic, syntactic and semantic competences in the native language form the foundation for foreign language learning (and FL aptitude). The strength of the native language codes considerably determines the extent to which a learner can become proficient in a foreign language. Weak L1 skills inhibit FL proficiency development. That is why it is essential to provide dyslexic students with special support in foreign language classes.

Abstract: Some students classified as learning disabled (LD) have exhibited problems with learning a foreign language (FL). College students classified as having attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are often assumed by educators and service providers to have problems that impair FL learning. To date, no empirical studies have investigated this assumption. In the two studies reported here, college students classified as LD or as both LD and having ADHD (LD/ADHD) who had either substituted courses for the FL requirement (petition) or had fulfilled the requirement by passing FL courses (nonpetition) were compared in terms of demographic, cognitive, and academic achievement profiles, and FL grades. In the first study, few differences were found in demographic, cognitive, and achievement profiles between petition students classified as LD or LD/ADHD. In the second study, no significant differences in demographic profiles were found among groups classified as petition LD, petition LD/ADHD, nonpetition LD, and nonpetition LD/ADHD. On cognitive and academic achievement measures, the nonpetition LD/ADHD group scored significantly higher than the petition LD group on measures of IQ, reading, math, and scholastic achievement (ACT). The results of both studies appear to be counterintuitive because students with two disabilities (LD and ADHD) were found to exhibit cognitive ability, academic achievement, and FL grades greater than or equal to students with LD alone. Findings suggest that students classified as both LD and ADHD may not necessarily experience serious problems with FL learning.