Native language predictors of foreign language proficiency and foreign language aptitude

Proponents of the concept of learning disabilities (LD) assume that students classified as LD and those with IQ‐achievement discrepancies have more severe native language and foreign language learning problems than students not classified as LD. Two studies that included high school students classified as “at‐risk” for learning a foreign language (FL) investigated these assumptions. The first study compared “at‐risk” students classified as learning disabled (LD) with “at‐risk” students not classified as LD. Results showed no significant differences between the two groups on measures of native language skill, FL aptitude, and FL learning and proficiency. The second study examined only the students classified as LD and compared students with and without discrepancies between their scores on measures of intelligence (IQ) and academic achievement. Results showed no significant differences between the two groups on measures of FL learning and proficiency. Findings suggest that students classified as LD and non‐LD do not exhibit cognitive, academic achievement, and FL aptitude differences, or differences in their FL learning and proficiency after two years of FL study. The findings of both studies are contrary to the LD concept. The studies demonstrate the importance of providing verifiable evidence to substantiate claims that a student meets criteria for classification as LD. Implications focus on use of the LD label and IQ‐achievement discrepancies for determining which students may have problems with FL learning.

The objective of the present study was to explore the direct and indirect effects of academic boredom on foreign language (FL) proficiency in teaching English as a foreign language (EFL). As a prominent negative emotion, the detrimental effect of FL boredom on FL proficiency has been verified. However, the mediating mechanism between FL boredom and FL proficiency, especially the mediating effect of cognitive strategies, needs to be further explored. We recruited 505 Chinese EFL learners (236 female, 46.73%) from one secondary school using convenience sampling to verify the mediating role of elaboration strategies between FL boredom and FL proficiency. Structural equation modelling (SEM) and mediation analysis yielded two major findings. First, FL boredom was negatively correlated with FL proficiency. Second, after controlling for gender and age, FL boredom, mediated through elaboration strategies, influenced FL proficiency. Third, elaboration strategies partially mediated the relationship between FL boredom and proficiency. Implications and limitations are discussed.

Drawing upon cognitive writing process theory and research, this study investigates the influence of language of writing, foreign language (FL) proficiency and gender on the revision processes of 77 undergraduate students studying at an English-medium college in Oman. Their first language (L1) was Arabic and their FL was English. The participants produced two argumentative authentic texts, one in L1 and one in FL. Their proficiency in English was assessed using the Oxford Placement Test (OPT). Participants’ revisions were recorded and analysed, according to the measures amount, location and type, via keystroke logging. The results showed that the vast majority of revisions in both languages were immediate, i.e. at the point of inscription, and focused on language rather than content. In addition, there was consistent evidence that participants made more revisions in the FL than they did in L1. For ‘total amount of revision’ and ‘immediate revisions’, there was a consistent interaction between gender and FL proficiency. The pattern of the interaction indicated two conflicting tendencies: (a) female participants appeared in general to be more motivated to make revisions in both languages than males, and (b) the less proficient they were in FL the more revisions they made. By contrast, the number of revisions made by the male participants did not depend on their FL proficiency. For ‘distant’, i.e. already written text, and ‘end’, i.e. after producing the first draft, revisions the amount of revision depended solely on the language of writing and gender. Furthermore, the results revealed that when writing in the FL, students with greater FL proficiency attended to content revision more than language revision. Findings are discussed in light of process-oriented writing research and implications for writing research and teaching are suggested.

Fifty‐four students were followed over 10 years and tested with native language measures in first through fifth grades and measures of foreign language aptitude and foreign language proficiency in high school. All students had completed two years of Spanish, French, or German. Students were divided into three groups based on their scores on the Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS). Findings showed that the low anxious group scored significantly higher than the high anxious group on all native language measures beginning in second grade. The low anxious group scored significantly higher than the high anxious group on all measures of foreign language proficiency and foreign language aptitude, and also achieved higher foreign language course grades. Few differences were found between the low anxious and average anxious groups on the native language and foreign language testing measures. Findings also showed that the FLCAS was negatively correlated with native language measures of reading, spelling, and vocabulary as early as the beginning of first grade. The results suggest that the FLCAS is likely to be measuring students' perceptions of their language learning skills, and that language skills are likely to be a confounding variable in the findings of researchers who suggest that anxiety plays a primary role in foreign language proficiency and achievement.

Foreign language (FL) aptitude generally refers to a specific talent for learning a foreign or second language (L2). After experiencing a long period of marginalized interest, FL aptitude research in recent years has witnessed renewed enthusiasm across the disciplines of educational psychology, second language acquisition (SLA) and cognitive neuroscience. This paper sets out to offer a historical and an updated account of this recent progress in FL aptitude theory development and research. As its subtitle indicates, the paper centres on three major issues: following the introduction and clarification of basic concepts, Section 1 traces the early conceptions of FL aptitude dominated by John Carroll's pioneering work. Section 2 summarizes and examines more recent theoretical perspectives and FL aptitude models proposed by researchers from multiple disciplines that have significantly broadened the conventional research traditions associated with Carroll's original conception. Based on the research synthesis of current FL aptitude models, Section 3 suggests the directions FL aptitude theory and research might take in coming years. We conclude that a working memory perspective on FL aptitude presents one promising avenue for advance, as does the development of new aptitude tests to predict speed of automatization, implicit learning and greater control over an emerging language system. In addition, it is argued that issues of domain-specificity versus domain-generality for aptitude tests may lead to aptitude theory and research becoming more central in applied linguistics.

In applied linguistics generally and bilingualism research in particular, psychological variables remain a much under-investigated sub-category of individual differences compared with cognitive ones. To better understand the under-researched psychological effects of bilingualism, this study investigated well-being, a psychological construct, based on a big-data survey. Drawing upon a national survey (N = 12,582), we examined the influence of bilingualism (operationalised as foreign language (FL) proficiency) and 13 sociobiographical variables (e.g., socio-economic status, SES) on well-being. Among these 14 initial independent variables, perceived social fairness, SES, and health emerged as important predictors for well-being, with FL proficiency and national language (NL) proficiency as potentially important predictors; crucially, FL proficiency was more important than NL proficiency. As the first systematic attempt to link bilingualism with well-being, our study advocates (1) a more holistic perspective towards language (including NL and FL(s)) in any bilingual context and (2) fuller use of effect sizes.

Translation assessment is central to translator education. Building on translation competence models, recent scholarship increasingly advocates competence-based, multidimensional assessment that combines product and process evidence when evaluating students’ translation performance. Online tests, now widely used for low- and high-stakes translation assessment, offer a practical context for concurrently capturing both strands of evidence. This study examines how foreign language (FL) proficiency relates to student translators’ process management, product quality, and performance perceptions across text types in course-embedded online tests. Using a mixed-methods approach, the study combined holistic assessment of translations with screen recordings, questionnaires, and semi-structured interviews for a comprehensive analysis. The findings indicated that, although its effects varied by text type, higher FL proficiency predicted more effective process management and higher translation quality, and was associated with more positive performance perceptions. However, many test-takers were unaware of the importance of process management. This study calls for further strengthening FL proficiency development, incorporating process management training, and considering FL proficiency in early diagnostic assessment and placement to support more equitable competence development across entry proficiency levels. Overall, the study contributes to competence-based translation assessment by providing a multidimensional account of student translators’ performance across FL proficiency levels in online translation tests.

In this study, the benefits of multisensory structured language (MSL) instruction in Spanish were examined. Participants were students in high-school-level Spanish attending girls’ preparatory schools. Of the 55 participants, 39 qualified as at-risk for foreign language learning difficulties and 16 were deemed not-at-risk. The at-risk students were assigned to one of three conditions: (1) MSL—multisensory Spanish instruction in self-contained classrooms (n=14); (2) SC—traditional Spanish instruction provided in self-contained classrooms (n=11); and (3) NSC—traditional Spanish instruction in regular (not self-contained) Spanish classes (n=14). Not-at-risk students (n=16) received traditional Spanish instruction in regular classes similar to the instruction provided to the NSC group. All three at-risk groups made significant gains over time on some native language skills regardless of teaching method. The MSL group also made significant gains on a foreign language aptitude measure. The MSL group and the not-at-risk group made greater gains than the two other at-risk groups on foreign language aptitude and native language measures of reading comprehension, word recognition, and pseudoword reading. Although most at-risk learners achieved an “expected” level of foreign language proficiency after two years of instruction, significant group differences were found. On measures of oral and written foreign language proficiency, the MSL and not-at-risk groups scored significantly higher than the at-risk groups instructed using traditional methods. After two years of Spanish instruction, no differences in foreign language proficiency were found between the MSL group and the not-at-risk group.

Fostering intercultural communicative competence (ICC) is an essential goal of foreign language (FL) education. While the relationship between language proficiency and ICC has begun to attract scholarly attention, it remains under-investigated. The study investigated this relationship by holistically considering both FL proficiency and national language (NL) proficiency. Specifically, it examined the influence of these proficiency variables vis-à-vis selected socio-biographical factors (e.g. gender) on ICC among 223 pre-service teachers in an English as a FL (EFL) context. Hierarchical regression analyses revealed that FL proficiency (viz. English proficiency) and NL proficiency (viz. Putonghua proficiency) emerged as very important predictors; crucially, FL proficiency was more important than NL proficiency. Length of stay abroad was regarded as a potentially important factor. As a first systematic attempt to link language proficiency with ICC, our study advocates (1) a more holistic perspective towards language (including NL and FL(s)) in any EFL context and (2) further applications of the more refined version of hierarchical regression analysis across different disciplines and institutional contexts to regularly update knowledge and inform ICC practice. Our study also offers implications for the development of curricula aimed at improving ICC.

This study aims to explore the foreign language (FL) aptitude components as one of the crucial factors of successful language learning. Having conducted the research, the following results and conclusions have been drawn. FL aptitude is defined as individual psychological characteristics which determine and predict the dynamics of mastering FL, that is the rate, speed and progress of learning. The components of FL aptitude include language abilities (phonetic, lexical, grammatical and stylistic abilities), speech abilities (abilities to listening, speaking, reading and writing), communicative abilities, the sense of language, thinking in a foreign language, linguistic creativity, motivation. The sense of language and thinking in a foreign language is considered to be the central abilities in FL aptitude. The structure of FL aptitude forms an integral unity, since it is characterized by the interdependence and interaction of all its components. Moreover, it is closely related to general intelligence. Therefore, it is possible to single out auditory and cognitive abilities which are common for all above mentioned abilities and play a key role in determining the level of their development. These abilities involve auditory differential sensitivity (phonemic awareness and intonation hearing), memory (iconic, echoic, motor, working, short-term, long-term, verbal and the ability of involuntary remembering), verbal thinking and inductive reasoning, cognitive processing speed (the rate of speech, the rate of associative processes and the rate of processing new information). According to the level of FL aptitude development there are three styles of FL learning: communicative, cognitive and mixed. The difference between these three styles lies in the fact that the first style refers to language acquisition and the second and the third styles refer to language learning. Consequently, the direct (natural) methods of FL learning are more appropriate for the representatives of the cognitive style and the indirect methods or the combination of the direct and indirect methods is more beneficial for the representatives of the cognitive and mixed styles. Taking into account the results of our research, we suppose it is expedient to run the tests for revealing and measuring FL aptitude which is normally difficult to observe. It allows the educators to detect the factors which make it difficult for students to learn FL and to find the effective ways to eliminate or relieve them.

operational the construct of foreign/second language (L2) proficiency, researchers and practitioners continually debate theories concerning the nature of language proficiency (10; 21; 22), the functional relationship of proficiency to classroom instruction and materials development (4; 9; 26; 30; 42; 53; 60), and the measurement of its component skills (6; 11; 18; 24; 28; 31; 33; 35; 54). However, even as the debates rage about the definition of the construct and about the validity and utility of various kinds of proficiency measures, the perceived need grows for valid, reliable, and cost-efficient proficiency tests for use in education, industry, and government. In fact, although a decade has passed since the President's Commission on Foreign Language and International Studies recommended that a common, nationally recognized standard for measuring developed foreign language (FL) proficiency be adopted in this country (56: p. 23), the imperative for developing methods of assessing FL proficiency is almost as great today as it was in the early 1980s. The need to create tests of proficiency in the less commonly taught languages (LCTs), especially in the area of listening comprehension, is particularly acute. In their 1982 survey of materials development needs in the LCTs in the United States, Clark and Johnson asserted that no appropriate and readily available external-to-program measures of developed functional language proficiency existed for many of the LCTs at that time (p. 69). As the 1990s begin, oral proficiency measures and guidelines for some of the LCTs have been created, but the situation has not changed appreciably for the LCTs as far as the assessment of listening comprehension proficiency is concerned. The American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL) and the Center for Applied Linguistics (CAL), for example, are engaged in developing oral proficiency guidelines and tests for certain LCTs: Swahili, Lingala, and Hausa (54: p. 108). However, tests of proficiency in listening comprehension have yet to be devised for these languages, for many of the other LCTs, and, for that matter, even for many of the commonly taught lan-

Foreign Language Testing Constructs, Frameworks, and Assessments

Dyslexic students have significant problems with learning a foreign language. Foreign language (FL) learning is built upon the native language (L1). The skills such as phonological/ orthographic, syntactic and semantic competences in the native language form the foundation for foreign language learning (and FL aptitude). The strength of the native language codes considerably determines the extent to which a learner can become proficient in a foreign language. Weak L1 skills inhibit FL proficiency development. That is why it is essential to provide dyslexic students with special support in foreign language classes.

This research was undertaken against the backdrop of the realization—albeit with scanty empirical evidence—that trainee translators do not always possess the much-needed foreign language (FL) proficiency to excel in the profession upon graduation. The study describes how a semester-long graduate-level computer-assisted translation (CAT) course was designed to improve the FL proficiency of 19 trainees (12 female and 5 male), whose FL knowledge, or lack thereof, was determined using a pre-study questionnaire to gather data on perceived FL proficiency, years of FL learning, and number of pertinent courses taken. The CAT course, informed by the questionnaire findings, was grounded in the constructivist learning approach, which foregrounded self-regulated learning (SRL), peer collaboration, and scaffolded instructions and feedback. Based on data gathered from the trainees’ collaboratively translated texts, post-study questionnaire results, and SRL logs, it was found that the trainees’ grammar, writing, vocabulary, and delivery errors significantly reduced as they translated more content. These practical implications of the study’s findings are crucial for understanding of FL’s place in and successful incorporation into translation programs and course designs.

Critical thinking is among the variables that have recently become increasingly prominent in foreign language learning. However, there is a biased research focus on the role of CT skills, and empirical evidence on the relationships between CT disposition and foreign language learning is scant. This cross-sectional study aimed to bridge this gap by examining the effects of overall CT disposition as well as its sub-constructs (open-mindedness, perseverance, reflectiveness, inquisitiveness, and self-confidence) on foreign language proficiency. The study mainly discussed the research questions of how CT disposition was related to and to what extent it could predict learners’ foreign language proficiency. This research employed Pearson correlation analysis, regression analysis, and one-way ANOVA to analyze the data collected from a sample of 391 Chinese foreign language learners at Jiangxi Normal University and Zaozhuang University. The instrument adopted to assess the participants’ CT disposition was newly proposed in Chinese in the current study. The results demonstrated that both overall and sub-constructs of CT disposition were positively related to learners’ foreign language proficiency. Foreign language learners embracing different levels of CT disposition displayed significant differences in their foreign language proficiency. Except for perseverance, the other four dispositional traits (open-mindedness, reflectiveness, inquisitiveness, and self-confidence) toward CT were found to be significantly positive predictors of learners’ foreign language proficiency in the Chinese context. The positive impacts of CT disposition triggered in foreign language learning in the present research give an empirical grounding to the cultivation of foreign language learners’ CT dispositional factors to facilitate their foreign language development. Implications, limitations, and recommendations for future exploration and research were also discussed.