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Abstract
The span of sonars being calibrated by the standard-target method continues to grow. In this retrospective of the past 25 years, the essence of the method is reviewed for both narrow-band and broadband systems. Applications to scientific echo sounders with operating frequencies from 18 kHz to 3.2 MHz are summarized. Applications to multibeam sonars that provide the water-column signal, with frequencies of 90, 200, 240, and 400 kHz, are also summarized. A planned application to a parametric sonar, with primary frequencies in the range 15–21 kHz and difference-frequency band 0.5–6 kHz, is described. The method is applicable to ordinary midfrequency sonars. In each example, particular standard targets are specified. Diameters vary from 10 mm for a sphere of tungsten carbide with 6% cobalt binder for use at low megahertz frequencies, to 60 mm for a sphere of electrolytic-grade copper for use at 38 kHz, to 280 mm for a sphere of aluminum alloy for use at low-kilohertz frequencies.
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