Stabilize the oxygen vacancies in 2D bipyramidal CoFe2O4 via altering local electronic structure by SnSe for boosted photocatalytic degradation of ciprofloxacin: Interfacial engineering, mechanism insight and toxicological evaluation of byproducts

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Investigating a cost-effective, environmentally friendly, and improved photocatalysis system for ciprofloxacin (CIPRO) degradation presents a significant hurdle in environmental remediation. In this work, SnSe nanoparticles (NPs) were synthesized by hydrothermal approach leading to the successful formation of SnSe-CoFe2O4 nanocomposite (SCF NCs). It was achieved by decorating the surface of SnSe NPs with 2D bipyramidal oxygen-vacant (OV) CoFe2O4 NPs. This work aims to stabilize the OV in 2D bipyramidal CoFe2O4 by altering the local electronic structure through SnSe, enhancing the photocatalytic degradation of CIPRO. The NPs surface morphological features, high crystalline nature, and enhanced surface area properties are investigated using several characterization techniques. The X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) reveals the oxygen defect site in CoFe2O4 and the interfacial electric field between SnSe and CoFe2O4 NPs, significantly improving the catalytic activity of SCF NCs. The degradation of CIPRO at the optimized concentration (50 mg/L – SCF NCs, 10 mg/L CIPRO, pH - 3) under visible light reached around 91.3%. The SCF NCs demonstrate superior photodegradation performance of 2.59 and 1.86 times greater activity compared to their individual counter parts, SnSe and CoFe2O4, respectively. Furthermore, the system accommodates a broad range of degradation concentrations of CIPRO from 5 – 25 mg/L, indicating promising potential for practical applications. Additionally, the intermediate compounds formed during the photodegradation process were analyzed using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), and a possible degradation pathway was proposed. The toxicity levels of these intermediates were assessed in various aquatic organisms, including fish, daphnia, and green algae using the ecological structure activity relationship (ECOSAR) tools. This research presents a new perspective on the development of innovative materials for the removal of pollutants from water sources.