Abstract
During two consecutive summer and winter seasons in Lahore, the health risk of air and dust-borne polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) was evaluated. Gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GS/MS) was used to determine air and dust samples from various functional areas across the city. The mean ∑16PAHs were higher in air 1035.8 ± 310.7 (pg m−3) and dust 963.4 ± 289.0 (ng g−1 d.w.) during winter seasons as compared to summer seasons in air 1010.9 ± 303.3 (pg m−3) and dust matrices 945.2 ± 283.6 (ng g−1 d.w.), respectively. PAHs ring profile recognized 3 and 4 rings PAHs as most dominant in air and dust samples. Estimated results of incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) highlighted high carcinogenic risk among the residents of Lahore via ingestion and dermal contact on exposure to atmospheric PAHs. The total ILCR values in air among children (summer: 9.61E − 02, winter: 2.09E − 02) and adults (summer: 1.45E − 01, winter: 3.14E − 02) and in dust, children (summer: 9.16E − 03, winter: 8.80E − 03) and adults (summer: 1.38E − 02, winter: 1.33E − 02) during the study period. The isomeric ratios in the study area revealed mixed PAH sources, including vehicular emission, petroleum, diesel and biomass combustion. As a result, it is advised that atmospheric PAHs should be monitored throughout the year and the ecologically friendly fuels be used to prevent PAHs pollution and health concerns in the city. The findings of this study are beneficial to the local regulating bodies in terms of controlling the exposure and promoting steps to reduce PAHs pollution and manage health in Lahore.
Highlights
During two consecutive summer and winter seasons in Lahore, the health risk of air and dust-borne polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) was evaluated
The mean carcinogenic PAHs (∑C7PAHs) concentrations were ranged from 295.0 ± 88.5 to 358.9 ± 107.7 and 311.1 ± 93.3 to 365.9 ± 109.8 in summer and winter, respectively
In comparison with other international cities, the current study has shown higher mean concentrations of Σ16PAHs of dust compared from Karaj, Iran (624 ng g−1 d.w.)[73] and lower than Lanzhou city, China (3900 ng g−1 d.w.)[65], Sydney, Australia (2910 ng g−1 d.w.)[74], Tianjin, China (7993.3 ng g−1 d.w.)[14], New Delhi, India (1100 ng g−1 d.w.), and Mashhad, Iran (2183.5 ng g−1 d.w.)[75]
Summary
During two consecutive summer and winter seasons in Lahore, the health risk of air and dust-borne polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) was evaluated. Abbreviations PAHs Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons GS/MS Gas chromatography/mass spectrometry ILCR Incremental lifetime cancer risk HMW High molecular weight LMW Low molecular weight US EPA United States Environmental Protection Agency WHO World Health Organization PAS Passive air samplers EPD Environment Protection Department PUF Polyurethane foam DCM Dichloromethane AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation SIM Split injection mode TEF Toxic equivalency factor BaP-TEQ Benzo(a)pyrene toxicity equivalent BW Body weight CSF Carcinogenic slope factor EF Exposure frequency ED Exposure duration EDI Estimated daily intake. Dermal exposure occurs when PAHs come into direct contact with the skin and eyes due to occupational or other environmental c onditions[19] Another major element of exposure in humans is dietary consumption of PAHs from various food categories (including fruits, vegetables, and meat)[20]. Their toxicity depends on particulate size, molecular structure, chemical composition, and meteorology of the r egion[29]
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