Abstract
Using the “total energy cycle” methodology, we compare U.S. near term (to ~ 2015) alternative pathways for converting energy to light-duty vehicle kilometers of travel (VKT) in plug-in hybrids (PHEVs), hybrids (HEVs), and conventional vehicles (CVs). For PHEVs, we present total energy-per-unit-of-VKT information two ways (1) energy from the grid during charge depletion (CD); (2) energy from stored on-board fossil fuel when charge sustaining (CS). We examine “incremental” sources of supply of liquid fuel such as (a) oil sands from Canada, (b) Fischer-Tropsch diesel via natural gas imported by LNG tanker, and (c) ethanol from cellulosic biomass. We compare such fuel pathways to various possible power converters producing electricity, including (i) new coal boilers, (ii) new integrated, gasified coal combined cycle (IGCC), (iii) existing natural gas fueled combined cycle (NGCC), (iv) existing natural gas combustion turbines, (v) wood-to-electricity, and (vi) wind/solar. We simulate a fuel cell HEV and also consider the possibility of a plug-in hybrid fuel cell vehicle (FCV). For the simulated FCV our results address the merits of converting some fuels to hydrogen to power the fuel cell vs. conversion of those same fuels to electricity to charge the PHEV battery. The investigation is confined to a U.S. compact sized car (i.e. a world passenger car). Where most other studies have focused on emissions (greenhouse gases and conventional air pollutants), this study focuses on identification of the pathway providing the most vehicle kilometers from each of five feedstocks examined. The GREET 1.7 fuel cycle model and the new GREET 2.7 vehicle cycle model were used as the foundation for this study. Total energy, energy by fuel type, total greenhouse gases (GHGs), volatile organic compounds (VOC), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx), fine particulate (PM2.5) and sulfur oxides (SOx) values are presented. We also isolate the PHEV emissions contribution from varying kWh storage capability of battery packs in HEVs and PHEVs from ~ 16 to 64 km of charge depleting distance. Sensitivity analysis is conducted with respect to the effect of replacing the battery once during the vehicle’s life. The paper includes one appendix that examines several recent studies of interactions of PHEVs with patterns of electric generation and one that provides definitions, acronyms, and fuel consumption estimation steps.
Highlights
One set of evaluations included electric vehicles (EVs), PHEVs, and fuel cell vehicle (FCV)Over the last two decades, automakers, entrepreneurs [1]
The diesel powertrain energy use will be from a mix of technologies that should fare much better in the latter type of comparison depends on public policy with regard to cap and trade than it does under the driving assumptions used here
Among the criteria pollutants that we have reported on, volatile organic compounds (VOC), carbon monoxide (CO), and nitrogen oxides (NOx) are ozone precursors
Summary
One set of evaluations included EVs, PHEVs, and FCVs. Over the last two decades, automakers, entrepreneurs [1]. Over the last two decades, automakers, entrepreneurs [1] Another intensive multi-laboratory evaluation and governments have exerted considerable effort to focused on the EV [2, 3]. The EV was indirectly develop alternatives to the petroleum-product-fueled promoted by a regulation in California mandating zero internal combustion engine, in order to improve air tailpipe (TTW) emissions technology, while the diesel quality, reduce oil consumption, and/or reduce electric hybrid vehicle was promoted by very ambitious greenhouse gases. Options receiving attention have goals of the Partnership for a New Generation of included alcohol fuels, electric vehicles (EVs), hybrids Vehicles (PNGV). California did not get the zero TTW (HEVs), plug-in hybrids (PHEVs), fuel cell vehicles emissions vehicles that it mandated.
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