Abstract
AbstractMongol society in the sixteenth century underwent a series of important changes under the leadership of the remarkable Altan-qaghan (1507–82). In general these may be characterised as first, a period of annual and devastating raids into China to 1550, second, a time of substantial Chinese migration into Mongol territory from the mid-1540s to 1570, and, finally, an era of peace and the opening up of trade between the Ming and the northern nomads from 1571. Throughout his life, Altan attempted to gain economic security for his people and relieve their poverty by acquiring essential grain and craftgoods — initially through plundering northern China, then by patronizing Chinese agricultural settlers l and, when this failed, by becoming a vassal of the Ming.
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