Abstract
Silicon photomultipliers (SiPMs) are single-photon sensitive solid-state detectors that are becoming popular for several applications, thanks to massive performance improvements over the last years. Starting as a replacement for the photomultiplier tube (PMT), they are now used in medical applications, big high-energy physics experiments, nuclear physics experiments, spectroscopy, biology and light detection and ranging (LIDAR) applications. Due to different requirements in terms of detection efficiency, noise, etc., several optimizations have been introduced by the manufacturers; for example, spectral sensitivity has been optimized for visible light, near ultraviolet, vacuum ultraviolet, and near infrared light. Each one of them require specific processes and structural optimization. We present in this paper recent improvements in SiPM performance, owing to a higher cell fill-factor, lower noise, improved silicon materials, and deep trench isolation. We describe issues related to the characterization of analog SiPM, particularly due to the different sources of correlated noise, which have to be distinguished from each other and from the primary pulses. We also describe particular analyses and optimizations conducted for specific applications like the readout of liquid noble gas scintillators, requiring these detectors to operate at cryogenic temperatures.
Highlights
Analog silicon photomultipliers (SiPMs) are arrays of many Single-PhotonAvalanche Diodes (SPADs), each one with its integrated passive-quenching resistor, referred to as microcells
Other quantities can be useful, for example, the excess charge factor (ECF) is a number that identifies the extra charge produced by each primary event, because of the correlated noise
The optimal cell pitch depends on the application requirements: small cells have typically smaller photon detection efficiency (PDE) at single photon level (PDE0) but higher linearity up to high photon flux and lower correlated noise at a given overvoltage
Summary
Analog silicon photomultipliers (SiPMs) are arrays of many (hundreds, thousands) Single-Photon. The SiPM has obtained growing attention in the last years as an alternative to the traditional photomultiplier tube in the detection of low photon fluxes, thanks to a number of advantages typical of solid-state detectors, such as compactness, ruggedness, ease of use, low operational voltage (tens of volts) and insensitivity to magnetic fields [1] They have easier scalability, for both the microcell (pixel) size and the overall active area dimension (between less than 1 mm and 100 mm2 ), as shown in this paper. Cherenkov light by emitted in air showers initiated bygamma-rays high-energyfrom to very-high-energy gamma-rays sources [10] In this case, SiPMs are operated in the presence of a significant amount of light generated from both Galactic and Extragalactic sources [10]. Each technology is tailored for specific applications, having different spectral sensitivities, internal structures, and target operating conditions
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