Abstract
Airborne particulate matter with a size of 10 μm or less (PM10) can cause oxidative damages and inflammatory reactions in the skin. This study was conducted to discover natural products that are potentially useful in protecting the skin from PM10. Among the hot water extracts of a total of 23 medicinal plants, Siegesbeckiae Herba extract (SHE), which showed the strongest protective effect against PM10 cytotoxicity, was selected, and its mechanism of action and active constituents were explored. SHE ameliorated PM10-induced cell death, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release, lipid peroxidation, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production in HaCaT cells. SHE decreased the expression of KEAP1, a negative regulator of NRF2, and increased the expression of NRF2 target genes, such as HMOX1 and NQO1. SHE selectively induced the enzymes involved in the synthesis of GSH (GCL-c and GCL-m), the regeneration of GSH (GSR and G6PDH), and GSH conjugation of xenobiotics (GSTκ1), rather than the enzymes that directly scavenge ROS (SOD1, CAT, and GPX1). SHE increased the cellular content of GSH and mitigated the oxidation of GSH to GSSG caused by PM10 exposure. Of the solvent fractions of SHE, the n-butyl alcohol (BA) fraction ameliorated cell death in both the absence and presence of PM10. The BA fraction contained a high amount of chlorogenic acid. Chlorogenic acid reduced PM10-induced cell death, LDH release, and ROS production. This study suggests that SHE protects cells from PM10 toxicity by increasing the cellular antioxidant capacity and that chlorogenic acid may be an active phytochemical of SHE.
Highlights
Of the 23 plant extracts tested, seven plant extracts showed their own toxicity, significantly reducing cell viability in the absence of PM10 ; they are the extracts derived from Eucomiae Folium, Eucomiae Ramulus, Mori Ramulus, Angelicae tenuissimae Radix, Gardeniae Fructus, Akebiae Caulis, and Pini Pollen
The nine plant extracts had no effect on cell viability by themselves, and mitigated the decrease in cell viability caused by PM10 ; they are the extracts derived from Castaneae Semen, Peucedani Japonici Radix, Arisaematis
The results of this study showed that Siegesbeckiae Herba extract (SHE) increased the expression of GSTκ1, glutathione disulfide reductase (GSR), glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PDH), glutamate-cysteine ligase catalytic subunits (GCL-c), and glutamate-cysteine ligase modifier subunit (GCL-m) rather than the expression of SOD1, CAT, and GPX1
Summary
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Air pollution, exacerbated by rapid climate change and industrial development, poses a major environmental factor that threatens human health [1]. Suspended in the atmosphere is a complex material that contains various organic compounds and heavy metals [2]. Continued exposure to high concentrations of PM increases the incidence of various diseases, including respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, and mortality [3]. PM with an approximate diameter of less than 10 or 2.5 μm is called PM10 and PM2.5 , respectively [4]
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