Abstract
Extra cranial shunting procedures (Cone et al. 1949, Matson 1951) were used to treat hydrocephalus before the work of Nulsen and Spitz (1952) and before the introduction of the Holter valve in 1956. However in most cases they were inefficient or even dangerous; they overdrained because they could not close and rapidly blocked due to tissue reaction to the constituent material.
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