Abstract
While human milk composition is characterised by marked dynamicity, we are far from having a clear picture of what factors drive this variation. Hormones in human milk are known to vary according to specific maternal phenotypes, but limited evidence shows the infant also has a role in determining milk composition. The present study aimed to investigate the interplay between maternal and infant characteristics in relation to human milk hormonal profile. In total, 501 human milk samples from mothers recruited in the Finnish STEPS cohort study (Steps to the healthy development) were analysed. Pre-pregnancy and pregnancy maternal data, socioeconomic status and infant characteristics at birth were collated. Leptin, adiponectin, insulin-like growth factor-1 and cyclic Glycine-Proline in milk were measured. Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) and linear regression were utilised for statistical analysis. Sex-specific interactions with maternal factors were observed, as the infant sex mediated associations between gestational diabetes and milk adiponectin (p = 0.031), birth-mode and total protein (p = 0.003), maternal education and insulin-like growth factor-1: cyclic Glycine-Proline ratio (p = 0.035). Our results suggest that changes in human milk composition are associated with interactions between maternal and infant characteristics and pathophysiological factors. Future work should expand on these findings and further explore the link between hormonal profiles in human milk and infant outcomes.
Highlights
Active compounds in human milk (HM) include different classes of hormones, such as growth [1] and satiety factors [2], that play important roles in human physiology and metabolism mediating energy intake [3] and somatic growth [4]
Over 50% of the population presented with a normal body mass index (BMI) and less than 10% developed gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM)
Our findings showed an association between pre-pregnancy BMI, pregnancy factors and infant characteristics at birth and the concentration of bioactive compounds in HM collected three months after birth
Summary
Active compounds in human milk (HM) include different classes of hormones, such as growth [1] and satiety factors [2], that play important roles in human physiology and metabolism mediating energy intake [3] and somatic growth [4]. Nutrients 2020, 12, 152 amino and fatty acid profiles of women with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) or elevated body mass index (BMI), suggesting that HM may have different nutritional and hormonal composition associated with individual maternal characteristics. This suggests that certain concentrations might be more desirable than others in relation to their effects on infant growth [18], as it is well established that nutritional and hormonal exposures during the first 1000 days of life affect infant growth and metabolic health in the long term [19].
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