Abstract
This review explores the potential of separating and recycling rare earth elements (REEs) from different energy conversion systems, such as wind turbines, electric vehicles batteries, or lighting devices. The REEs include 17 elements (with global production of 242 kilometric tons in 2020) that can be found abundantly in nature. However, they are expensive and complicated to extract and separate with many environmental challenges. The overall demand for REEs is continuously growing (with a 10% yearly increase) and it is quite clear that recycling has to be developed as a supply strategy in addition to conventional mining. However, the success of both mining and recycling depends on appropriate separation and processing technologies. The overall REE recycling situation today is very weak (only 2% of REEs are recovered by recycling processes compared with 90% for iron and steel). The biggest recycling potentials rely on the sectors of lamp phosphors (17%), permanent magnets (7%), and NiMH batteries (10%) mainly at the end-of-life stage of the products. The profitability of rare earth recycling mostly depends on the prices of the elements to accommodate the processing costs. Therefore, end-of-life REE recycling should focus on the most valuable and critical REEs. Thus, the relevant processes, feed, and economic viability warrant the detailed review as reported here.
Highlights
Rare earth elements (REEs) are key chemical raw materials in the development of low-carbon industrial processes and especially in green energy technologies [1]
The most common and critical R- EEsWtohdaatymaarrekeutspedrofsoprechtisgdho-pseurcfohremleamnceentpsehramvaenaegnatinmsat gmnientisn(gnseuopdpylmy?ium, Nd, and dyspTrohseiumma,inDyen) earngdypshecotsoprhs orer-lbataesdedtoliRghEtEins gar(eeu[5r]o:pium (Eu), yttrium (Y), and terbium (-Tb))W[7i]n. dThpeotwweor mgeonsetrcaotimonm(omnaRgEneEtss)a;re lanthanum (La) and cerium (Ce) in the Earth’s c-rustE, anserwgeyllstaosriangee-(wNaiMsteHs.bTahtteeyriaerse);the two most produced and used rare earths as of - Energy-saving and conversion. These energy systems were more precisely studied to assess in which parts of the devices the rare earths are used and can give information on the potential for recycling and dysprosium, Dy) and phosphor-based lighting (europium (Eu), yttrium (Y), and terbium (Tb)) [7]
The current recycling of REEs is extremely low
Summary
Rare earth elements (REEs) are key chemical raw materials in the development of low-carbon industrial processes and especially in green energy technologies [1]. The processes required for their extraction and mutual separation use high amounts of energy and demand complex drilling technologies They barely exist in pure form on earth. DThpeotwweor mgeonsetrcaotimonm(omnaRgEneEtss)a;re lanthanum (La) and cerium (Ce) in the Earth’s c-rustE, anserwgeyllstaosriangee-(wNaiMsteHs.bTahtteeyriaerse);the two most produced and used rare earths as of - Energy-saving and conversion (lighting). These energy systems were more precisely studied to assess in which parts of the devices the rare earths are used and can give information on the potential for recycling and dysprosium, Dy) and phosphor-based lighting (europium (Eu), yttrium (Y), and terbium (Tb)) [7]. The two most common REEs are lanthanum (La) and cerium (Ce) in the
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