Abstract
Sea anemones have been understudied as a source of peptide and protein toxins, with relatively few examined as a source of new pharmacological tools or therapeutic leads. This is surprising given the success of some anemone peptides that have been tested, such as the potassium channel blocker from Stichodactyla helianthus known as ShK. An analogue of this peptide, ShK-186, which is now known as dalazatide, has successfully completed Phase 1 clinical trials and is about to enter Phase 2 trials for the treatment of autoimmune diseases. One of the impediments to the exploitation of sea anemone toxins in the pharmaceutical industry has been the difficulty associated with their high-throughput discovery and isolation. Recent developments in multiple ‘omic’ technologies, including genomics, transcriptomics and proteomics, coupled with advanced bioinformatics, have opened the way for large-scale discovery of novel sea anemone toxins from a range of species. Many of these toxins will be useful pharmacological tools and some will hopefully prove to be valuable therapeutic leads.
Highlights
Sea anemones are members of the phylum Cnidaria, class Anthozoa, subclass Hexacorallia and order Actiniaria, one of the oldest extant orders of venomous animals
In Actinia tenebrosa, acrorhagi (which are used in aggressive intra-specific combat (Figure 2)) contain holotrichs and basitrichs [19] (Figure 3), while the different structures within sea anemones [18]
Kunitz-type family, sea anemone type 2 potassium channel toxin subfamily (26 proteins found in the ToxProt database)
Summary
Sea anemones are members of the phylum Cnidaria, class Anthozoa, subclass Hexacorallia and order Actiniaria, one of the oldest extant orders of venomous animals. Actinodendron plumosum extreme reactions have been reported for several species, including Actinodendron plumosum and and other other species species from from the the family family Actinodendronidae. A swimmer lost consciousness and underwent cardiopulmonary arreststung after by the stung sea anemone, Actinia equina, thisalthough may havethis been a consequence an anaphylactic being by the sea anemone, Actinia equina, may have been a of consequence of an reaction following prior exposure to unknown seaunknown anemones. Sea anemones the family anaphylactic reaction following prior exposure to sea[12]. The venom from P. semoni has caused responsible of from the few result from sea anemone envenomation [14]. From this venom severe kidney from P. semoni hasincaused acute renal failure in humans, with a protein toxincausing from this damage in rat models [15].
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