Saffron: From Greek mythology to contemporary anti-atherosclerotic medicine

Abstract

Atherosclerosis is the leading cause of death worldwide and, consequently, an area of intense medical research. With most of this research focusing on genomics, proteomics and nanotechnology, the use of natural therapeutic agents derived from plants may look outdated. Nevertheless, herbal medicines remain popular, a fact that is probably based on the assumption that nature is both wise and safe. In the era of evidence-based medicine, we have enough statistical, epidemiological and experimental tools in our armamentarium to check whether such an assumption is correct or not. Several studies have shown that red wine, for example, has anti-inflammatory effects by reducing plasma fibrinogen, IL-1alpha, IL-6, E-selectin, hs-CRP, monocyte and endothelial adhesion molecules and by triggering nitric oxide production from human healthy peripheral blood mononuclear cells [ 1 Estruch R. Sacanella E. Badia E. Antúnez E. Nicolás J.M. Fernández-Solá J. Rotilio D. de Gaetano G. Rubin E. Urbano-Márquez A. Different effects of red wine and gin consumption on inflammatory biomarkers of atherosclerosis: a prospective randomized crossover trial. Effects of wine on inflammatory markers. Atherosclerosis. 2004; 175: 117-123 Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (215) Google Scholar , 2 Magrone T. Tafaro A. Jirillo F. Panaro M.A. Cuzzuol P. Cuzzuol A.C. Pugliese V. Amati L. Jirillo E. Covelli V. Red wine consumption and prevention of atherosclerosis: an in vitro model using human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Curr. Pharm. Des. 2007; 13: 3718-3725 Crossref PubMed Scopus (34) Google Scholar , 3 Chiva-Blanch G. Urpi-Sarda M. Llorach R. Rotches-Ribalta M. Guillén M. Casas R. Arranz S. Valderas-Martinez P. Portoles O. Corella D. Tinahones F. Lamuela-Raventos R.M. Andres-Lacueva C. Estruch R. Differential effects of polyphenols and alcohol of red wine on the expression of adhesion molecules and inflammatory cytokines related to atherosclerosis: a randomized clinical trial. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2012; 95: 326-334 Crossref PubMed Scopus (127) Google Scholar ]. In vitro studies, as well as studies in experimental animals, have also provided some indication that a diet rich in antioxidant fruit and vegetables may be beneficial in the prevention of cardiovascular events, while vitamin A, C, and E supplementation has been proven to be effective in preventing experimental atherosclerosis [ [4] Ozkanlar S. Akcay F. Antioxidant vitamins in atherosclerosis—animal experiments and clinical studies. Adv. Clin. Exp. Med. 2012; 21: 115-123 PubMed Google Scholar ]. Olive oil, representing another key component of the Mediterranean diet, has been found to reduce the risk of atherosclerosis development by down-regulating cellular and circulating inflammatory biomarkers related to atherogenesis and by improving the antioxidant profile in the vascular endothelium [ 5 Meza-Miranda E.R. Rangel-Zúñiga O.A. Marín C. Pérez-Martínez P. Delgado-Lista J. Haro C. Peña-Orihuela P. Jiménez-Morales A.I. Malagón M.M. Tinahones F.J. López-Miranda J. Pérez-Jiménez F. Camargo A. Virgin olive oil rich in phenolic compounds modulates the expression of atherosclerosis-related genes in vascular endothelium. Eur. J. Nutr. 2016; 55: 519-527 Crossref PubMed Scopus (16) Google Scholar , 6 Urpi-Sarda M. Casas R. Chiva-Blanch G. Romero-Mamani E.S. Valderas-Martínez P. Arranz S. Andres-Lacueva C. Llorach R. Medina-Remón A. Lamuela-Raventos R.M. Estruch R. Virgin olive oil and nuts as key foods of the Mediterranean diet effects on inflammatory biomakers related to atherosclerosis. Pharmacol. Res. 2012; 65: 577-583 Crossref PubMed Scopus (174) Google Scholar ]. Crocus sativus L. aqueous extract reduces atherogenesis, increases atherosclerotic plaque stability and improves glucose control in diabetic atherosclerotic animalsAtherosclerosisVol. 268PreviewWe aimed to evaluate a possible atheroprotective effect of saffron aqueous extract (SFE), and its potential anti-inflammatory mechanisms, in apoE knockout (ApoE−/−) mice. Full-Text PDF