Rule-breaking in terrestrial protected areas of sub-Saharan Africa: A review of drivers, deterrent measures and implications for conservation

Abstract

Nature conservation relies largely on peoples' rule adherence. Nevertheless, non-compliance with regulations threatens in situ conservation in nearly every protected area (PA) and remains an intractable issue. We reviewed the available published scholarly literature on non-compliant biological resource-use in terrestrial protected areas (TPAs) of sub-Saharan Africa. The focus is on two objectives, firstly, to disentangle the complex drivers behind the various types of deviant behaviour observed in these PAs, and secondly, to assess the strategies deployed on the ground to deter such illegalities. Using 72 selected journal articles published between 2001 and 2021, we recorded nine types of deviant behaviour or illegal resource extraction that were reported. Poaching activity overshadowed all other criminal behaviours. Drivers varied according to the type of crime perpetrated or resources targeted. Poverty was the most cited driver of non-compliance, particularly for illegal bushmeat hunting. PA resentment prompted by destructive errant wildlife was almost as strong a motivation as material poverty. To deter offenders from committing a crime, a combination of interventions, i.e., law enforcement and a spectrum of non-enforcement approaches, such as Reformed Poachers Associations, long-term research sites and resource-access agreements, were deployed. Our synthesis demonstrates that the growing sub-Saharan African literature on non-compliant biological resource-use in TPAs is dominated by bushmeat poaching drivers. Other motives for PA offences by border villagers are scarcely dealt with in the peer-reviewed literature. Future studies of wildlife crime need to address PA transgression multidimensionality, not just bushmeat poaching, to reveal further drivers of transgressive behaviour and ultimately allow for evidence-informed conservation intervention design.