Protected areas for conservation and poverty alleviation: experiences from Madagascar

The Durban Vision in practice: experiences in the participatory governance of Madagascar’s new protected areas

The management of Protected Areas (PAs) in Brazil has been slowly incorporated the concept of participative governance, promoting the involvement and participation of local populations. There is a direct relationship between governance and effective management of PAs in such way that conservation of territories with involvement of local communities brings benefits to the society for a very low cost. The Amazon Protected Areas Program (ARPA) is a program launched by the Brazilian government in 2002 that supports 59,2 million hectares of PAs, making it the most ambitious biodiversity conservation program in the world. The main objectives of the ARPA include to protecting representative samples of biodiversity, ecosystems and associated landscapes, as well as maintaining of the environmental services. Based on decentralized and participative management principles, the Program also supports local communities, developing and implementing strategies of sustainable use of natural resources. Particularly, the subcomponent “integration of communities” supports 23 action plans, based on social and environmental safeguards of World Bank. This study presents the results of 14 action plans, which have been monitored and evaluated over the past two years. Methodology included participative workshops with PAs managers, along with fieldwork research for accomplishing activities with local stakeholders. Moreover, action plans have been evaluated throughout progress reports, meetings acts, and other documents related to the implementation of the plans. Ten out of 14 action plans have presented significant advances in the sustainable management of natural resources, community organization, and income generation. We found that positive results include establishment of partnerships among different organizations (e.g. local organizations, NGOs, universities, and research institutes); empowerment of local communities and more participation of stakeholders in the councils of PAs; improvements of communication and knowledge interchanges between stakeholders, communities, and managers; and strengthening of institutional dialogue. The main challenges concerning the successful implementation of the action plans include lack of human resources, high staff turnover, and bureaucracy related to the financial resources execution. We conclude that local development can significantly contribute to the effective management and conservation of PAs.

trialspecies,therelativemeritsofdifferentapproachesto ensure the long-term persistence of those species remain highly contentious. Most would agree, however, that both establishing protected areas and exercising some form of restraint on extraction of forest resources are among the most effective of all viable conservation measures. Deforestation, wildfires, logging, and hunting are among the leading drivers of species losses in tropical forests, and de facto or de jure protection from these threats can be conferred by either effective enforcement of regulations or physical remoteness. Attempts to assess conservation success of protected areasatlargescaleshaverestedprimarilyonconventional use of remote sensing to quantify spatial or temporal differences in rates of change in land cover due to deforestation and wildfires, rather than on empirical demographic or community-level metrics (Gaston et al. 2008). Q2 However, the former approaches fail to detect most types of subcanopy anthropogenic disturbances that also result, directly or indirectly, in species losses (Peres et al. 2006). Moreover, the effects of habitat loss and degradation on population extirpations and declines are nonlinear, so vegetation cover alone is rarely a robust proxy for the viability of terrestrial biotas. Remotesensing data show vast tracts of apparently intact tropical forests, but in reality levels of hunting and other forms of extraction in these areas are often unsustainable (Peres & Lake 2003). Fundamental questions yet to be answered include whether ostensibly intact protected areas retain full complements of forest species and how the extent of cryptic patterns of disturbance is related to human population density in both protected and unprotected areas. I considered the global to regional emergence of sustainable-use reserves, emphasizing the world’s largest tropical forest region, Amazonia. Sustainable-use reserves often have intermediate levels of disturbance, so I examined the degree of use of natural resources by resident communities and used human population density as a proxy for level of extraction. In both protected and unprotected areas, I also estimated responses of game vertebrate assemblages to hunting on the basis of the relative biomassextractedfromasubsetoftheforestfauna.Iused analysesofcovariance(ANCOVA)toexaminetheassociationbetweenhumandensityandgamebiomassharvested across different reserve categories. Finally, I considered the long-term capacity of sustainable-use forest reserves to maintain populations of all resident species.

Marine protected areas (MPAs) are a primary tool for the stewardship, conservation, and restoration of marine ecosystems, yet 69% of global MPAs are only partially protected (i.e., are open to some form of fishing). Although fully protected areas have well‐documented outcomes, including increased fish diversity and biomass, the effectiveness of partially protected areas is contested. Partially protected areas may provide benefits in some contexts and may be warranted for social reasons, yet social outcomes often depend on MPAs achieving their ecological goals to distinguish them from open areas and justify the cost of protection. We assessed the social perceptions and ecological effectiveness of 18 partially protected areas and 19 fully protected areas compared with 19 open areas along 7000 km of coast of southern Australia. We used mixed methods, gathering data via semistructured interviews, site surveys, and Reef Life (underwater visual census) surveys. We analyzed qualitative data in accordance with grounded theory and quantitative data with multivariate and univariate linear mixed‐effects models. We found no social or ecological benefits for partially protected areas relative to open areas in our study. Partially protected areas had no more fish, invertebrates, or algae than open areas; were poorly understood by coastal users; were not more attractive than open areas; and were not perceived to have better marine life than open areas. These findings provide an important counterpoint to some large‐scale meta‐analyses that conclude partially protected areas can be ecologically effective but that draw this conclusion based on narrower measures. We argue that partially protected areas act as red herrings in marine conservation because they create an illusion of protection and consume scarce conservation resources yet provide little or no social or ecological gain over open areas. Fully protected areas, by contrast, have more fish species and biomass and are well understood, supported, and valued by the public. They are perceived to have better marine life and be improving over time in keeping with actual ecological results. Conservation outcomes can be improved by upgrading partially protected areas to higher levels of protection including conversion to fully protected areas.

The creation and sound management of large protected areas in the Sahara is a sure means to addressing biodiversity loss. However, achieving this goal is rarely accepted by all the stakeholders involved and can generate confusion and instability: leading to land degradation instead of sustainable use of natural resources. Water is a key resource in the desert and governments, supported by donors and development partners, are willing to multiply boreholes and provide free water to a maximum number of herders ignoring that this can lead to overgrazing, habitat loss and desertification. Over the years, several innovative conservation projects in eastern Niger have been undertaken, run by the NGO Sahara Conservation Fund (SCF), with the support of the local population. Amongst these initiatives, a management committee composed of local leaders, community game guards and project staff was set up to assist with habitat protection in the Termit Massif: the last stronghold for an amazing array of species including the critically endangered dama gazelle and addax. Traditionally, the pastures of the Termit Massif are used by herders when pasture areas around the permanent wells outside of the Massif is not good enough. By curtailing the sinking of wells in the Massif, the management committee is endeavouring to manage sustainably the area’s precious and fragile natural resources. This article argues that innovation, awareness and traditional knowledge are a good combination to develop wise practices leading to sustainable use of the scarce natural resources for the benefit of both local communities and wildlife. Examples of the practices developed by the project are presented in this article and the challenges faced for the management of the recently gazetted Termit & Tin Toumma National Nature Reserve discussed.

The management of Protected Areas (PAs) in Brazil has been slowly incorporated the concept of participative governance, promoting the involvement and participation of local populations. There is a direct relationship between governance and effective management of PAs in such way that conservation of territories with involvement of local communities brings benefits to the society for a very low cost. The Amazon Protected Areas Program (ARPA) is a program launched by the Brazilian government in 2002 that supports 59,2 million hectares of PAs, making it the most ambitious biodiversity conservation program in the world. The main objectives of the ARPA include to protecting representative samples of biodiversity, ecosystems and associated landscapes, as well as maintaining of the environmental services. Based on decentralized and participative management principles, the Program also supports local communities, developing and implementing strategies of sustainable use of natural resources. Particularly, the subcomponent "integration of communities" supports 23 action plans, based on social and environmental safeguards of World Bank. This study presents the results of 14 action plans, which have been monitored and evaluated over the past two years. Methodology included participative workshops with PAs managers, along with fieldwork research for accomplishing activities with local stakeholders. Moreover, action plans have been evaluated throughout progress reports, meetings acts, and other documents related to the implementation of the plans. Ten out of 14 action plans have presented significant advances in the sustainable management of natural resources, community organization, and income generation. We found that positive results include establishment of partnerships among different organizations (e.g. local organizations, NGOs, universities, and research institutes); empowerment of local communities and more participation of stakeholders in the councils of PAs; improvements of communication and knowledge interchanges between stakeholders, communities, and managers; and strengthening of institutional dialogue. The main challenges concerning the successful implementation of the action plans include lack of human resources, high staff turnover, and bureaucracy related to the financial resources execution. We conclude that local development can significantly contribute to the effective management and conservation of PAs.

The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) conducts critical international studies and offers recommendations on the sustainable conservation, use, and management of protected areas worldwide by setting targets within the framework of the Nature 2030 goals and the Green List standards. These initiatives are essential for protecting designated areas and encouraging their use through nature-based and community-based solutions. The success of implementing these solutions depends on the effectiveness of the local legal regulations that are currently in place. This article argues that developing a common language and norms between global and national conservation frameworks, along with the efficiency of the national legal framework, plays a crucial role in facilitating the goals of the protection, use, and management of global protected areas. This study evaluates how the reflections and presence of IUCN’s globally significant targets are addressed within Türkiye’s national legal framework and policy level. The article evaluates global and national legal texts in Türkiye for social, environmental, and economic sustainability, comparing them with the Nature 2030 and Green List standards through methodologies such as word matching, comparison, and compatibility analysis. For the development of laws and policies that align with Türkiye’s global goals for the protection, use, and governance of protected areas regarding language and normative standards unity, the article highlights the importance of nature- and community-based national policy norms in achieving global protected area targets. The article’s results highlight the absence of community-based norms such as participation, governance, transparency, and equality, despite international consensus on norms like planning, area management, and the rule of law for the effective management of protected areas in Türkiye.

Are there trade-offs between conservation and development caused by Mexican protected areas?

Strengthening research efforts to understand the combined impacts of conservation and livelihoods in protected areas (PAs) will increase the collective contribution that PAs can make towards meeting global goals for sustainable development in the next decade. As an example of such efforts, in 2014 the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), the Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UN Environment) jointly initiated the “Sustainable Management of Protected Areas in East Africa” project. This paper provides a brief overview of the project’s research background, goals and research tasks. The study is based on a look at the PA management system in East Africa and a review of the literature on the impact of PAs in the region. Results show that East African nations have expanded the coverage of PAs and established a complex set of PA management systems over the past century. The mandate for PAs in East African nations has changed recently from protecting biodiversity to alleviating poverty and supporting livelihoods. However, a combination of human activities and ecological processes inside and outside of PAs may not only impact biodiversity and ecosystem function over the long term, but also pose a threat to the capacity of PAs to maintain livelihoods and alleviate poverty in the local communities around them. The state of existing research in the field suggests there is an enormous need for additional research, the purpose of which is to help PA managers and policy-makers in East Africa understand how to achieve win-win outcomes for both ecosystems and human well-being. Against this background, the CAS-KWS-UN Environment joint research project aims to understand the dynamic interactions between ecosystems and human well-being around PAs in East Africa and identify good practices for PA management to reconcile conservation targets with the livelihood demands of local communities. It is intended that this research be shared with interested parties throughout the developing world. Significant progress has been made in the implementation of the project, in terms of data collection, exchanges of researchers, and the completion of case studies. In the coming year, success stories and examples of failures of PA management in the region will be systematically summarized and shared among scientists, managers and decision makers worldwide. Given its blueprint for building a “Beautiful China”, China can both supplement and benefit from East African knowledge and experience of PA management. This joint research effort promotes Sino-African cooperation on PA research and management.

Tree invasion has the potential to negatively affect biodiversity and ecosystems, with invasive alien trees (IATs) expanding widely in protected areas (PAs) across different habitats. Thus, the effectiveness of PAs might be reduced. Investigation of the distributions of IAT is urgently required to improve the effective conservation management of PAs. We projected the potential distributions of 10 IATs, which included Acacia mearnsii, Ardisia elliptica, Cecropia peltata, Cinchona pubescens, Leucaena leucocephala, Melaleuca quinquenervia, Miconia calvescens, Morella faya, Prosopis glandulosa, and Spathodea campanulata, that have a serious influence on global biodiversity and assessed the distribution possibilities of these IATs in PAs based on the PA categories of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). The overall potential distributions of these 10 IATs included Latin America, central and southern Africa, southeastern Asia, eastern Australia and New Zealand, and western Europe. Annual mean temperature, temperature seasonality, annual precipitation, and soil bulk density were found to be important environmental variables for the potential distributions of these IATs. Overall, A. mearnsii, A. elliptica, C. peltata, L. leucocephala, M. quinquenervia, M. calvescens, and S. campanulata were distributed mainly in the IUCN PA categories of national parks and PAs with sustainable use of natural resources. We proposed the following for conservation management of PAs: (1) completion of species inventories for PAs, (2) better understanding of factors driving invasions in PAs, (3) assessment of the efficiency of management within particular PAs, and (4) evaluation of changes in trends regarding plant invasions in PAs under climate change conditions.

Food security and sustainable use of natural resources: a 2020 Vision

Protected areas (PAs) governance is increasingly seen as a critical determinant for PA management effectiveness. This paper aims to explore the actors involved in PA governance and management and their roles, and the factors influencing the PA management success as perceived by local communities in Manyara region, Tanzania. This study further explores the community perceptions of PAs governance using good governance principles including legitimacy and voice, accountability, performance, and fairness and rights. A mixed methods approach was used in this research which comprised structured household interviews, key informant interviews and document review. Respondents ranked local community involvement (12.6%) and environmental education and awareness (13.8%) as the top most important or relevant factors for PA management success in the region. Overall perceptions of respondents indicate that legitimacy and voice (83%), fairness and rights (75%) and performance (68%) were the good principles of PA governance while transparency was the weak governance criteria which may undermine effective community participation in PAs management in the region. This study suggests the need for full involvement and coordination of many stakeholders including the local communities, integration of multilateral governance principles and improving environmental education and awareness for effective governance and management of PAs in the region.

Environmental predictors of vascular plant richness at large spatial scales based on protected area data of China

One of the central conservation debates over the last quarter of a century has been the effect of conservation initiatives on local livelihoods. Most recently, numerous negative evaluations have been made of both coercive top-down approaches to management of protected areas, which were dominant before the 1980s and focused on enforcement of protection, and efforts to decentralize governance and increase local participation in resource-management initiatives linked to markets. These critiques are subsets of the general criticism of neoliberal conservation, which is characterized by a lesser role for the public sector, privatization of natural resources, and a greater role for market forces (McCarthy & Prudham 2004; Igoe & Brockington 2007). When natural resources are treated as commodities and state control over them is reduced, local stakeholders in remote rural areas, in particular indigenous peoples, can lose access to critical resources for their livelihoods to economic elites with greater resources to respond to economic opportunities. In this essay, we discuss what conservation means for the indigenous peoples living next to Madidi and Pilon Lajas protected areas in the Bolivian Amazon, a region of high species diversity and levels of endemism, where the state, local stakeholders, and several nongovernmental organizations have implemented numerous projects focused on maintaining biological diversity and improving local livelihoods. These conservation initiatives have strengthened management of protected areas and buffer zones, promoted sustainable naturalresource-use projects, and strengthened mechanisms for local participation in management of natural resources and protected areas. In addition, governance conditions have enabled alliances between conservation organizations and indigenous peoples. Of particular importance, a strong indigenous political movement has established partnerships with conservation practitioners. These partnerships are based on the recognition of rights of indigenous peoples to develop their own representative organizations and secure legal property rights over their ancestral lands. In 1990, before most of the protected areas in Central and South America were established (UNEP-WCMC 2010), the indigenous peoples in the Bolivian Amazon mobilized to obtain legal recognition of their territorial rights. Hence, the importance of indigenous territories for the cultural survival and livelihoods of Amazonian groups, as well as their entitlement to maintain or develop organizational and representation structures and promote traditional practices of natural resource use, has been recognized since the creation of the national protected-area system in Bolivia. The majority of protected areas in Latin America were established after constitutional reforms recognized the multiple cultural and ethnic characteristics of their countries (Van Cott 2010). The principal focus of these reforms was the design and consolidation of democratic institutions, but indigenous movements capitalized on the reforms to demand political inclusion and minimization of the negative effects of development in their traditional lands. The reforms built on the global indigenous mobilization to obtain recognition of their rights through the International Labor Organization No. 169 Convention on Indigenous and Tribal People in 1989. Bolivia is in the heart of South America where the Andes, Amazon, and Chaco come together; thus, it is one of the most species-rich countries in the world (Ibisch & Merida 2003). This high species richness is accompanied by a high cultural diversity. The 30 different indigenous groups present in the country represent 66% of the population, the highest percentage in Latin America (Del Popolo & Oyarce 2005). Forty-four indigenous lands are linked to protected areas in Bolivia, 30 are in the buffer zones; 5 are entirely within a protected area, and 9 overlap partially with a protected area (Salinas 2007). The relation between biological and cultural diversity is exemplified in northwestern Bolivia, a region of exceptional species richness resulting from topographical and climatic diversity and where the Bolivian government established three protected areas: Madidi National Park and Natural Area of Integrated Management (1895750 ha), Apolobamba Natural Area of Integrated Management

Protected areas are usually conceived and managed as static entities, although this approach is increasingly viewed as unrealistic given climate change and ecosystem dynamics. The ways in which people use land and/or natural resources within and around protected areas can also shift and evolve temporally but this remains an under-acknowledged challenge for protected area managers. Here we investigate the factors driving a rapid rise in charcoal production within a new, multiple-use protected area in Madagascar, to inform appropriate management responses. We conducted a questionnaire survey of 208 charcoal producers to ascertain the mix of livelihood activities they practised in 2010/2011 and 5 years previously. Respondents had diversified their livelihood activities over time, and cultivation and pastoralism had decreased as primary sources of revenue. Reasons for the growing reliance on charcoal production include the reduced viability of alternative livelihoods (primarily farming), as a result of changing rainfall patterns and the loss of irrigation infrastructure, as well as a growing need for cash to support themselves and their families. Our results suggest that charcoal production is not a desirable activity but a safety net when times are difficult. Conservation efforts to ameliorate underlying factors driving livelihood change, such as dam restoration, could reduce the prevalence of charcoal production, but simultaneous action to cut demand is also required. We recommend that mechanisms to detect, understand and respond to social change are integrated systematically into protected area management planning, alongside traditional biodiversity monitoring.