Rove beetle (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae) communities of the upper forest line of the Ukrainian Carpathians: structure and biotopic distribution (on the example of the Polonynskyi ridge)

Simple SummaryIncreasing forest management practices by humans are threatening inherent insect biodiversity and thus important ecosystem services provided by them. One insect group which reacts sensitively to habitat changes are the rove beetles contributing to the maintenance of an undisturbed insect succession during decomposition by mainly hunting fly maggots. However, little is known about carrion-associated rove beetles due to poor taxonomic knowledge. In our study, we unveiled the human-induced and environmental drivers that modify rove beetle communities on vertebrate cadavers. At German forest sites selected by a gradient of management intensity, we contributed to the understanding of the rove beetle-mediated decomposition process. One main result is that an increasing human impact in forests changes rove beetle communities by promoting generalist and more open-habitat species coping with low structural heterogeneity, whereas species like Philonthus decorus get lost. Our results are not solely important for carrion ecological, but also for forensic entomological assessments on crime scenes, e.g., postmortem body relocation, because little information is available until now about rove beetles as one of the most important insect groups on bodies.Intensification of anthropogenic land use is a major threat to biodiversity and thus to essential ecosystem services provided by insects. Rove beetles (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae), which react sensitively to habitat changes, are species-rich colonizers of vertebrate cadavers and contribute to the important ecosystem service of carrion decomposition. The unveiling of anthropogenic and environmental drivers that modify carrion-associated rove beetle communities should improve our understanding of the plasticity of cadaver decay. We report the presence of 80 rove beetle species on 65 decomposing piglet cadavers at forest sites characterized by a gradient of management intensity across three geographic regions in Germany. Local and landscape drivers were revealed that shape beetle abundance, diversity, and community composition. Forest management and regions affect rove beetle abundance, whereas diversity is influenced by local habitat parameters (soil pH, litter cover) and regions. The community composition of rove beetles changes with management intensification by promoting generalist species. Regarding single species, Philonthus decorus and Anotylus mutator are linked to unmanaged forests and Ontholestes tessellatus to highly used forest stands. The spatial information provided about carrion-associated rove beetle communities in German forests is not only of carrion-ecological but also of forensic entomological interest.

Diversity and similarity of butterfly communities were assessed in five different habitat types (from natural closed forest to agricultural lands) in the mountains of Tam Dao National Park, Vietnam for 3 years from 2002 to 2004. The line transect count was used to record species richness and abundance of butterfly communities in the different habitat types. For each habitat, the number of species and individuals, and indices of species richness, evenness and diversity of butterfly communities were calculated. The results indicated that species richness and abundance of butterfly communities were low in the natural closed forest, higher in the disturbed forest, highest in the forest edge, lower in the shrub habitat and lowest in the agricultural lands. The indices of species richness, evenness and diversity of butterfly communities were low in agricultural lands and natural closed forest but highest in the forest edge and shrub habitats. The families Satyridae and Amathusiidae have the greatest species richness and abundance in the natural closed forest, with a reduction in their species richness and abundance from the natural closed forest to the agricultural lands. Species composition of butterfly communities was different among five different habitat types (40%), was similar in habitats outside the forest (68%) and was similar in habitats inside the forest (63%). Diversity and abundance of butterfly communities are not different between the natural closed forest and the agriculture lands, but species composition changed greatly between these habitat types. A positive correlation between the size of species geographical distribution range and increasing habitat disturbance was found. The most characteristic natural closed forest species have the smallest geographical distribution range.

The assemblages of rove beetles (Staphylinidae) in mixed and beech forests of the Gorgany mountain massif are represented by 69 species belonging to 35 genera and 13 subfamilies. The identified species constitute 0.1% of the global fauna. The highest species diversity was observed in the subfamilies Staphylininae, Tachyporinae, Steninae, and Omaliinae, which together account for 81. 5 % of all recorded species. The subfamily Staphylininae comprises the largest number of genera – 14 in total – with 27 species. The genus Philonthus is the most species-rich, including 8 species. The genera Ocypus , Tasgius , Staphylinus , Qu e dius , and Xantholinus are each represented by two species, while the genera Othius , Deleaster , Platydracus , Emus , and Megal i nus each include only one species.The subfamily Tachyporinae includes four genera: Tachynus (5 species), Tachyporus (4 species), Lordithon (4 species), and Sepedophilus (2 species). Steninae is represented by a single genus, Stenus , with 5 recor ded species. Omaliinae includes four genera: Eusphalerus (3 species), Omalium (2 species), and Acrulia and Amphichroum , each with one species. The lowest number of species was recorded in the subfamilies Olisthaerinae, Micropeplinae, and Phloeocha rinae, each represented by a single species.A total of 28 species were common to both analyzed ecosystem types, including Om a lium caesum , Atrecus longiceps , Philonthus decorus , Ph . nitidus , Ph . marginatus , Ph . longicornis , Ph . splendens , Othius punct u latus , Deleaster dichrous , Staphylinus erythropterus , S . caesareus , Nudobius lentus , Oxytelus sculptus , Stenus comma , S . carpathicus , S . humilis , S . nitens , Tachyporus chrysomelinus , T . formosus , Lordithon lunulatus , L . trimaculatus , Bryaxis ca r pathicus , Oxyporus maxillosus and O . rufus . Dominance structure analysis revealed one dominant species in mixed ecosystems ( Philonthus splendens ) and three dominants in beech forest assemblages ( Philonthus splendens , Ph . marginatus , and Staphylinus erythropterus ). The proportion of subdominants in the analyzed assemblages was 18.3% and 14.6%, respectively. The checklist includes species found in forest litter, under stones, in plant and animal remains, animal dung, compost heaps, and fruiting bodies of fungi. In terms of trophic specialization, most species are predators, with some zoo-nematophagous and zoo-mycetophagous species also present. Certain species ( Deleaster dichrous ) show winter activity. Additionally, one species, Emus hirtus , is listed in the Red Data Book of Ukraine.

Vegetation structure and species composition of tropical ecosystems were studied through nine transects at Veerapuli and Kalamalai reserve forests in the Western Ghats of Tamil Nadu, India. Species diversity, dominance, species richness and evenness indices of plant communities and also population structure of woody plants were enumerated. A total of 244 species (183 genera and 76 families) were recorded. Species richness (number of species) were 82,142 and 96 species per 0.3 ha respectively for the study areas of low-elevation forest (LEF), mid-elevation forest (MEF) and high elevation forest (HEF). Species diversity indices were greater in MEF compared to the other two forests except juveniles. In contrast, greater dominance value indices were recorded in LEF than other forests. Density and basal area of the MEF were twice greater than the LEF, while HEF showed greater tree density and low basal area when compared to LEF. The stem density and species richness (number of species) decreased with increased size classes of trees observed in the present study indicated good regeneration status. Population structure of juveniles and seedlings also reflects good regeneration status. Terminalia paniculata (IVI of 99.9) and Hopea parviflora (IVI of 103.8) were dominant tree species respectively in LEF and MEF whereas in HEF Agrostistachys meeboldii (63.65), Cullenia excelsa (63.67) and Drypetes oblongifolia (39.67) share the dominance. Past damage (anthropogenic perturbation) may be one of the reasons for single species dominance in LEF and MEF. Occurrence of alien species such as Eupatorium odoratum and Ageratum conyzoides also indicated the past disturbance in LEF. The variations in plant diversity and population structure are largely due to anthropogenic perturbation and other abiotic factors.

Wetlands and especially floodplain forests belong to the most endangered ecosystems in Europe, characterized by complex dynamics of flood and dry periods and providing specific irreplaceable habitats for many organisms, including bioindicators. Many rove beetle species, for instance, are well-known detectors in monitoring ecological change, however, their use in environmental assessment requires to expand the insufficient knowledge on ecological environmental particularities of their assemblages. Therefore, we compared the rove beetle communities in eight habitats of floodplain forests from 2015 to 2016. Staphylinids were sampled by pitfall trapping. We compared the rove beetle taxocoenoses in the floodplain forests and their ecotones alongside three rivers (Danube, Tisa and Begej). We evaluated the impact of plant diversity and cover of vegetation layers, area, circumference and age of forest stands, distance to the forest edge, thickness of the litter layer, physical and chemical properties of soil and leaf litter (conductivity, pH, P, N, H, C) and anthropogenic impact on structure of rove beetle communities. We recorded significant interactions between total dynamic activity of rove beetles and number of plant species in shrub vegetation layer. Species richness was significantly positively correlated with number of plant species in shrub vegetation layer and soil pH, and negatively with relative H content of soil. We did not find any significant correlation between Shannon diversity, but evenness was negatively linked with species richness of plant communities in shrub layer.

Pinus contorta, one of the most invasive tree species in the world, has been proposed as a model species for improving our understanding of invasion ecology. In this study, we assessed the impact of P. contorta invasions on the species richness, diversity and species traits of a resident treeless steppe community. In a Pinus contorta invasion gradient (Patagonia, Chile), we surveyed vegetation from high canopy closure pine invasion to treeless steppe, and computed species richness, diversity and Sorensen similarity indexes. For all species, we determined functional trait values from the literature, data bases, and personal observations. Species richness and diversity were related to canopy cover (a proxy for invasion intensity) using generalized linear mixed-effects models. Changes in species traits due to canopy cover were analyzed using RLQ ordination analysis and the fourth-corner analysis. We found that Pinus contorta canopy cover significantly reduced the number of native species by 70 %, implying a strong effect on species exclusion. A few native species, however, prevail in the novel conditions (e.g. Baccharis magellanica, Acaena integerrima). Species traits changed significantly with increasing pine canopy cover, where P. contorta promoted the existence of traits related to shade-tolerance and conservative reproductive strategies. We conclude that the negative impacts of Pinus contorta into the treeless steppe, including a reduction in the number of species and the shifting to traits adapted to tolerate shade and associated with conservative reproductive strategies, can have severe implications for the conservation of biodiversity and ecosystem functioning where it invades.

Introduction. Rove beetles are one of the largest families of dung beetles on our planet. Representatives of this family occur in almost all types of terrestrial ecosystems, where they play an extremely important ecological role, acting as active predators, and therefore regulators of the number of a significant number of invertebrates. Despite the significant distribution of representatives of the analyzed family in terrestrial ecosystems and their role in them, staphylinids remain one of the least studied families in the Ukrainian Carpathians. In connection with the mentioned aspects, it is not possible to make a complete picture of the faunal diversity of short-winged beetles in the analyzed region. For a more complete understanding of the entomological composition of groups and the peculiarities of their changes, it is necessary to consider the results of previous entomological studies. The purpose of the work is a retrospective analysis of studies of short-winged beetle communities in the Ukrainian Carpathians. Methods. The classical method of literary data analysis was used. Main results. The article highlights the results of the research of Marian Aloiz Lomnytskyi, who for the first time thoroughly analyzed the faunal composition of groups of short-winged beetles in the Ukrainian Carpathians. In general, the author highlighted the results of his research in six works. M. A. Lomnytskyi analyzed in detail the species diversity of short-winged beetles in the studied region, established their altitudinal distribution and ecosystem timing. The results of his research became the basis for further zoological and ecological studies of staphylinids in the Carpathians. Conclusions. The existing literature is highly fragmented, yet it has provided a valuable foundation for more detailed investigations and allowed for the analysis of temporal changes in entomological complexes across extended periods. Marian-Aloiz Lomnytskyi conducted the most comprehensive and rigorous analysis of rove-beetle (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae) assemblages in the Ukrainian Carpathians and the Pre-Carpathian region; his work has served as the basis for subsequent studies of entomofauna within this family. Through these investigations, Lomnytskyi identified and characterized approximately 760 species of rove-beetles across various ecosystem types, accounting for altitudinal distribution gradients. Presently, only about 600 of these species are observed in the Ukrainian Carpathians. The decline in species diversity is attributed to the degradation of natural ecosystems, increases in pollutant loads, and overall anthropogenic pressure.

Insect communities of mammal dung have been known as excellent model ecosystems for scientific study. Ecological surveys of diversity and seasonal patterns of coprophilous rove beetles in relation to wild mammals have rarely been conducted, although the high potential species diversity and abundance of the rove beetles are known. In order to investigate biodiversity of these beetles, we analyzed species composition, abundance, feeding guild and seasonality of rove beetles that were attracted to sika deer Cervus nippon dung by using dung‐baited pitfall traps for a 1.5‐year study in two plantations (cypress, cedar) and one secondary natural forest (pine) in Fukuoka Prefecture, southwest Japan. Consequently, saprophagous Anotylus sp. (Oxytelinae) was dominant in all forests. Analyses of feeding guild structure showed the number of individuals were dominated by saprophagous beetles, but the number of species were dominated by predatory beetles. Seasonal effects suggested that the species richness and abundance of rove beetles are possibly regulated by scarabaeoid dung beetles. These findings feature one example of a coprophilous rove beetle community.

تنوع زیستی، به همه اشکال زنده حیوانات، گیاهان و میکروارگانیسم‏ها اطلاق می‏شود. تنوع زیستی کشاورزی جزئی از تنوع بوده و بیانگر تنوع زیستی در زمین‏های زراعی می‏باشد. در این پژوهش وضعیت تنوع زیستی کشاورزی کشت‏بوم‏های شهرستان شهر ری واقع در جنوب تهران از طریق محاسبه شاخص غنای گونه‏ای با استفاده از روش رقیق‏سازی مورد ارزیابی قرار گرفت. به منظور انجام این مطالعه هشت روستا (درسون آباد، قیصر-آباد، عظیم آباد، ده خیر، طالب آباد، قمی آباد، ابراهیم آباد و خانلق) در سه بخش (کهریزک، قلعه‏نو و فشافویه)، واقع در شهرستان شهر ری از توابع استان تهران به عنوان نمونه انتخاب شدند. نتایج این پژوهش نشان داد که سه روستای واقع در بخش قلعه نو از توابع شهرستان شهرری، یعنی روستای ده‏خیر، قمی‏آباد و طالب آباد با داشتن شاخص غنای گونه‏ای، به ترتیب برابر با 85/14، 68/14 و 11/13 دارای بیشترین سطح تنوع زیستی در بوم نظام‏های زراعی می‌باشند و عظیم آباد در بخش کهریزک و روستای خانلق در بخش فشافویه از این شهرستان به ترتیب با 06/12 و 25/12 دارای کمترین مقدار شاخص غنای گونه‏ای می‏باشند. با استفاده از برآورد شاخص غنای گونه ای به روش رقیق سازی مشخص شد روستاهای طالب آباد و قمی آباد که به علت کمی مساحت زمین‏های زراعی در نمونه‏های مورد مطالعه، دارای کمترین تعداد گونه در نظام‏های زراعی بودند، از بالاترین مقادیر شاخص غنای گونه‏ای هم‏وزن شده در بین روستاها، برخوردار بودند.

In order to understand the diatom community structure and reveal the pollution status and water quality in Nanchong section of Jialing River,15 diatom samples and water quality samples in five cites or counties of Nanchong city,were collected according to normal methods,in dry season,level season and rainy season,respectively.Chemical indices including COD,TN and TP were measured.The diatom community structure including diatom species composition,cell densities,Shannon-Weaver diversity index and Lloyd-Ghelardi evenness index were analysed,and the water quality was evaluated combined with chemical index.The results showed that:(1) 136 taxa,which belonged to 2 class,10 family and 26 genera were observed(including variety and form).Pennatae diatom species numbers were richer than that of centriate diatom.The percentage of Pennatae diatoms and centriate diatoms were 94.52% and 5.48% to the total diatoms,respectively.Langzhong section had the highest species numbers with 86 and Nanchong section had the lowest species numbers with the number of 48;The cell densities of diatom was in the range of 4500—39000 ind/L with the mean value of 18213 ind/L.Langzhong section had the lowest cell densities of diatom with the value of 12600 ind/L and Nanchong section had the highest cell densities of diatom with the value of 23700 ind/L.The diversity index was in the range of 1.05—3.30,with the mean value of 2.44.Langzhong section had the highest diversity index with the value of 2.85 and Nanchong section had the lowest diversity index with the value of 1.80;the evenness index was in the range of 0.22—0.66 with the mean value of 0.47.Langzhong section had the highest evenness index with the value of 0.55 and Nanchong section had the lowest evenness index with the value of 0.35.(2) The diatom species numbers,cell densities,diversity and evenness index took on noticeable seasonal and horizontal distribution distinction.To seasonal change,the diatom community structure had similarities in level season and dry season,with more species numbers,higher cell densities,diversity and indices evenness indices than those in rainy season.To horizontal distribution change,from upstream to downstream,the diatom species numbers decreased and diversity index and evenness index declined gradually,however,cell densities of diatom increased gradually.The sampling sites at upstream of the city had more species numbers,lower cell densities and higher diversity indices and evenness indices than those at downstream.(3) Species diversity index and evenness index as well as chemical items were used to evaluate the water quality in Nanchong section of Jialing River.The results consistently indicated that the water quality in Nanchong section of Jialing River belonged to β-mesosaprobic Zone all in all and the water body possessed certain self-purification ability.The water quality of Langzhong section was the best of all,which belonged to Oligosaprobid Zone;those of Nanbu,Xinzheng and Peng'an sections were between β-mesosaprobic Zone and Oligosaprobid Zone,which of Nanchong section was the worst of all,belonging to α-mesosaprobic Zone.To improve and protect the water quality of Jialing River,some prevention and cure measures and suggestions were given in the paper.

Diurnal and seasonal fluctuations of organisms in a north Florida estuary

In disturbed sites, some groups of seeds might be excluded from the seed rain due to their dispersal modes or seed size, and some groups might be successful as a result of dis- turbance effects. In the present study, we examined the seed rain in natural treefall gaps and in an area of regenerating forest following an accidental burning, which occurred 4 years before this study. Both of these disturbed areas were compared with nearby forest understorey. The number of seeds, number of species, and proportion of wind-dispersed seeds were com- pared between these disturbed and undisturbed areas. The treefall gaps have received lower numbers of seeds and species than the nearby understorey, but the number of wind-dispersed seeds did not differ between these areas. The lowest seed number observed in treefall gaps can be attributed to a lower number of animal- dispersed seeds, suggesting that animals may be avoiding treefall gap areas. A higher number of seeds and a lower number of species were ob- served in the burned area when compared to the adjacent understorey. The high number of small-sized seeds and of wind-dispersed seeds in the burned area was almost surely a conse- quence of the local production of the pioneer plants established after the burning. In this study, substantial differences were observed in the characteristics of the seed rain at disturbed sites, when compared with undisturbed under- storey. However, these two distinct types of disturbance showed quite differing patterns, as treefall gaps received lower number of seeds while the burned area received a higher number of seeds, with a greater proportion of wind- dispersed seeds. The exception was for species richness, which was quite low at both these disturbed sites.

以浙江省天目山1 hm²常绿落叶阔叶混交林样地调查数据为基础，运用K-means聚类方法将DBH≥1 cm的个体根据树高划分为不同林层，研究比较了各个林层的物种多样性特点；利用通径分析方法和决策系数定量计算各个林层物种多样性对群落整体物种多样性的直接作用和间接作用，天目山常绿落叶阔叶林垂直结构对群落物种多样性构成的影响。结果表明：（1）天目山常绿落叶阔叶林群落层次结构丰富，树高由1.4-36.5 m依次可分为灌木层、亚冠层、林冠下层、林冠中层和林冠上层。（2）天目山常绿落叶阔叶林群落从灌木层依次往向上，物种丰富度、多度、特有种数量、Shannon-Weiner指数和Simpson指数均呈下降趋势。（3）灌木层对群落物种多样性的贡献最大且远高于其他四个林层，其中灌木层对群落整体物种多样性Shannon-Wiener指数、Pielou指数以及Simpson指数的决策系数分别为0.850、0.651、0.755。（4）林冠下层、林冠中层和林冠上层密度的大小对灌木层的物种数目有明显的影响，林冠层密度越大，灌木层群落的物种数目越少，复杂程度越低；偶见种和稀有种对群落物种多样性的维持具有特殊作用。综上，研究认为森林群落的垂直结构在维持森林群落整体物种多样性中具有关键作用，而灌木层在群落整体物种多样性构成中具有决定作用，森林群落中稀有种、偶见种多少在群落物种多样性构成中具有特殊作用。;Based on the survey data of 1 hm² deciduous and evergreen broadleaved forest plot in Tianmu Mountain of Zhejiang Province, we assessed species biodiversity by K-means clustering method, the individuals with diameter at breast height(DBH) ≥ 1 cm was divided into different forest layers according to tree height, and the features of species diversity in each layer were computed, compared, and contrasted. In addition, the direct and indirect biodiversity impacts also evaluated by using path analysis, namely, the quantity of decision coefficients. The objective of the study was to reveal the influence of vertical structure on community species diversity in an evergreen deciduous broad-leaved forest community. The results demonstrated that:(1) the forest community had multiple-layered vertical structure, which could be divided into five layers:shrub layer (1.4-4.2 m), sub-canopy layer (4.3-7.6 m), lower canopy layer (7.7-13.4 m), middle canopy layer (13.5-21.5 m), and upper canopy layer (21.6-36.5 m). (2)The species richness,abundance,the number of endemic species, Shannon-Weiner index and Simpson index of the community appeared a downward trend from bottom to top layers. (3)Shrub layer was the largest contributors to the community overall species diversity index and was much higher than the other four forest layers. And the decision coefficient of shrub layer towards overall species diversity of community that Shannon-Wiener index, Pielou index and Simpson index was 0.850, 0.651, and 0.775, respectively. (4) The density of lower canopy, middle canopy, upper canopy had a negative impact on the species number of the shrub layer. The larger density of the forest canopy was, the less the number of species would become in the shrub community as well as the complexity. In addition, the occasional and rare species in the shrub layer also played a key role in maintaining the species diversity of the shrub layer. In conclusion, the vertical structure of the community was critical in maintaining the overall species diversity of the given forest community. The shrub layer played a decisive role in the composition of overall species diversity, besides the number of occasional and rare species also played a key role on the composition, thus, species diversity of the community.

A list of species with an access of their “amount” (number of individuals, true/projective cover, biomass) on a plot of a standard size is the information that is necessary for an objective classification of plant communities, no matter what principles it is based on. Information on species composition, the variation both in their “amount” and constancy in the pool of geobotanical relevés is the basis for their clustering and the delimitation of syntaxonomical units. The only possible documents recording this information are geobotanical relevés, both published in the open press and stored in databases/archives. The completeness of species list within these depends on such parameters as time spent working in the field and technique (standard eye assessment at the sample plot (25 or 100 m2), a series of smaller (less than 1 m2) plots as well the researcher’s professionalism. The statement about the need to obtain a complete list of species in each stand seems an axiom, which is not fulfilled in practice. In Taymyr, when describing zonal communities for more than 2 hours, were recorded about 75 % of species, found on a permanent, carefully studied, sample plot of the same association. It is not necessary to comment that eye assessment of both composition and quantitative parameters are far fr om perfect. The same “amount” of species (abundance, cover) can be reflected differently not only by various researchers, but even by one, and not only in different years and areas, but as well in one season depending on such factors as what reléve was before, at what time of day (evening lighting in the Arctic is a serious factor), in what weather, etc. The result is influenced by factors such as the size and shape of a sample plot. The size is obvious: it should be no smaller than minimal area i. e. an area that gives an adequate idea of the composition of the described plot (Barkman, 1958, 1993). For the Arctic, according to the results of special work (Matveyeva, 1998), an area of 25 m2 was recommended for the species richest communities with a complex horizontal structure and 9 m2 for all others. The most frequent, generally accepted shape is a square. The use of another one depends on the community configuration: in narrow, elongated, winding, it must be “adjusted” to the outline of the stand, or it is better to abandon a single large plot in favor of several smaller ones. Location of the sample plot in space: preferably the most central, equidistant from the community boundaries. The smaller size of the community in general or its narrowness is fraught by the effect of visinizm (Barkman, 1958, 1990): the plot and therefore the list will get species of neighboring communities. No less problematic is the eye assessment of the species”amount”. It is generally accepted to evaluate projective cover, since neither to count the number of individuals, nor the determine of the true cover, and even more no biomass, in numerous relevés, is unrealistic. Despite the enormous field experience of Western European phytosociologists during the first half of the last century, who become convinced that it was impossible to determine the projective cover by eye with an accuracy of 1 %, they came to a reasonable decision to use grades. In the practice of classification according to the Brown-Blanquet approach, the 7-grade scale (r, +, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5), periodically slightly modified, became the most widely used (see: Becking, 1957). To our great regret, we gradually began to use individual authors’ scales with larger number of grades — as a result the same numbers in different scales represent different cover in percent. This is more or less acceptable as long as we are talking about one paper. However when a lot of data are collected from different, often geographically remote, areas, and a large number of relevés are put into a single table, the possibility of an error in assessing the species cover is huge. Recently again, researches began to show the projective cover with an accuracy of 1 %, arguing that percent can be converted into grades, but not vice versa. The objection is the same: it is impossible to determine the projective cover by eye with an accuracy of 1 %. Not only that each researcher has his own mistake (before starting work in the field in Taymyr, we checked our estimates more than once: the difference in smaller values always differed by 1–3 %, in higher ones (after 25 %) by 5–10 %); the same person will give a different percentage depending on many reasons. Hence, if it is not specified how the projective cover was assessed (for example, on 100 m2 sample plot on each 1 m2, i.e. 100 squares), then the figures 8 %, 11 %, 19 %, 38 %, 41 %, etc. — are deliberate misrepresentation. An intermediate result of the discussion of field errors: the eye assessment of the composition, the total number of species and their amount depends on such a number of tricks that its accuracy leaves much to be desired. What is the alternative? It is available and repeatedly tested. From personal experience in Taimyr, this is the use of small (from 0.1×0.1 to 0.5×0.5 m) plots on which species identification and estimation of their numbers is incomparably more accurate than on a large test site. Another approaches were: to use a ­graduated piece of metal-wire — a field device for creating a virtual plot in the form of 3 circles (0.1, 0.01, 0.001 m2 in size) for obtaining data in heterogeneous Arctic communities, proposed by Danish phytosociologist T. Böcher (1975); to estimate separately the “amount” and number of species for each element of intra-community mosaic. Always the practice on identifying species on smaller plots gave results 1.5–2 times higher than in the standard relevé, i. e. the species richness of the Arctic communities is underestimated and often very much (up to 30 %). It should also be noted that it is always a great success if specialists in different plant groups work together in the field, for the Arctic in particular these are bryologists and lichenologists: the numbers of species in relevés are always many times higher. All the above facts are the arguments of the evident incomplete list of species under standard field practice. What follows from this? First position is that: 1) the number and set of species in different communities of the same association is always different (“... the number of species grows steadily as the number of relevés increases even in the most homotonous types of vegetation” (Barkman, 1990: p. 1217); 2) the species richness of the association (coenoflora) is many times higher than that of a particular stand. Few examples: in polar desert zone on Bolshevik Isl. in the zonal ass. Deschampsio-Aulacomnietum turgidi Matveyeva 2006 179 species were identified in 18 stands, with 49–84 in each one (70 in average), i.e. 2.5 times less than in the association; for other associations (same place) this ratio is 1.7–2.8 (Matveyeva, 2006); on Taymyr, this indicator varies from 1.0 to 3.4, and there is no connection with either the zonal position or the number of relevés (Matveyeva, 2009). Having in mind the significant differences in species richness of communities and syntaxa, it would be possible to see the unevenness of species distribution in the landscape, which is also indicated by the species spread in constancy classes with a high (up to 40– 50 %) proportion of species of the low (1–20 %) constancy. The question whether this reflects the reality is asked extremely rarely. Greatly possible is that a large number of species with low constancy in syntaxa is a consequence of their oversight in the field. In the data processing such field errors are not taken into account, and in the procedure of syntaxon differentiation one attaches importance to variances in the presence of low-constant (I and II classes) species. The difference in one step fits into the statistical error for any class (even assuming the unbelievable that every species has been recorded in each stand that does not happen in practice). Hence, it is incorrect to consider such weak differences in the species constancy (V–IV, IV–III, III–II, II–I) as essential for choosing selective character species (occur in several syntaxa, but more often in one). Against giving diagnostic value to low-constant species, in particular those with low (r, +) abundance, experts in phytosociology have been warning for a long time (see: Barkman, 1990, 1991). Outside the scope of analysis is also a topic of how many relevés are needed for definition a new syntaxon, as well as on which territory — in one or in several sites. However just this is what gives reason of describing new variants of already known associations in another area wh ere another researcher works with his own errors in obtaining data. An answer to the question of what to do with all this is as follows: no matter how tempting it is to attract indicators of species composition, richness and constancy, for any kinds of assessment and comparisons, they should be used with great care, having in mind the methodological errors in their obtaining. But even if forget about the relevé quality, their table treatment is also not at the highest level (three example are given). In order not to complete the given essay on the subject of how imperfect we are in our attempts not only in understanding, but even in describing nature on such a sad note, here, as an ironic defense, is a quote from the ancient Greek (485–410 BC) philosopher Protagoras: “... about every subject we can say both in two ways and in the opposite way”, which in our practice is often sounds as: “but the author sees it like that”. However if we consider ourselves as people of science, we have to operate with facts, to justify our position by evidence, not by assumptions, guesses, and emotions ... In any comparisons of the species diversity of communities and the use of these data for their classification, it should be keeping in m

Urban growth is a major threat to biodiversity conservation at the global scale. Its impacts are expected to be especially detrimental when it sprawls into the landscape and reaches sites of high conservation value due to the species and ecosystems they host, such as protected areas. I analyzed the degree of urbanization (i.e., urban cover and growth rate) from 2006 to 2015 in protected sites in the Natura 2000 network, which, according to the Habitats and Birds Directives, harbor species and habitats of high conservation concern in Europe. I used data on the degree of land imperviousness from COPERNICUS to calculate and compare urban covers and growth rates inside and outside Natura 2000. I also analyzed the relationships of urban cover and growth rates with a set of characteristics of Natura sites. Urban cover inside Natura 2000 was 10 times lower than outside (0.4% vs. 4%) throughout the European Union. However, the rates of urban growth were slightly higher inside than outside Natura 2000 (4.8% vs. 3.9%), which indicates an incipient urban sprawl inside the network. In general, Natura sites affected most by urbanization were those surrounded by densely populated areas (i.e., urban clusters) that had a low number of species or habitats of conservation concern, albeit some member states had high urban cover or growth rate or both in protected sites with a large number of species or habitats of high conservation value. Small Natura sites had more urban cover than large sites, but urban growth rates were highest in large Natura sites. Natura 2000 is protected against urbanization to some extent, but there is room for improvement. Member states must enact stricter legal protection and control law enforcement to halt urban sprawl into protected areas under the greatest pressure from urban sprawl (i.e., close to urban clusters). Such actions are particularly needed in Natura sites with high urban cover and growth rates and areas where urbanization is affecting small Natura sites of high conservation value, which are especially vulnerable and concentrated in the Mediterranean region.