Romanticism (the First Half of the 19th Century). The Pathos of Individualism

The essence of the series of essays published by the journal is that with a maximum compactness of the presentation, it provides a summary of the main phenomena of world artistic culture, covered in its entirety both from the point of view of the general historical process, and in relation to the various arts (literature, the fi ne arts, architecture, music, theater and cinema). At the same time, the customary categorization according to national schools and the division into the separate respective arts with the genre specifi cation inherent in each of them are overcome, which answers the positive trends of globalization and provides a holistic view of artistic phenomena. The following artistic and historical periods are considered in stages: the Ancient world, the Greco-Roman world, the Middle Ages, the Renaissance era, the Baroque period, the Enlightenment, Romanticism, Post-romanticism, the fi rst, second and third Modern periods, Postmodernism, and, as an afterword, — “The Golden age of Russian artistic culture.”

The essence of the series of essays published by the magazine is that with a maximum compactness of presentation it provides a summary of the main phenomena of world artistic culture covered in general, both from the point of view of the general historical process, and in relation to the various forms of art (literature, the visual arts, architecture, music, theater and cinema). At the same time, the usual categorization of national schools and division into separate types of art with the genre specification inherent in each of them is overcome, which meets the positive trends of globalization and provides a holistic view of artistic phenomena. The following artistic and historical periods are considered in a stepwise manner: the Ancient world, Antiquity, the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, the Baroque Period, the Enlightenment, Romanticism, Post-Romanticism, the First Modern Period, the Second Modern Period, the Third Modern Period, the Postmodern Period, and as an afterword — “The Golden Age of Russian Artistic Culture”.

The essence of the series of essays published by the magazine is that with the maximum compactness of the presentation, it provides a summary of the main phenomena of world artistic culture, covered in General both from the point of view of the General historical process, and in relation to various types of creativity (literature, fine art, architecture, music, theater and cinema). At the same time, the usual categorization of national schools and the division into separate types of art with the genre specification inherent in each of them is overcome, which meets the positive trends of globalization and provides a holistic view of artistic phenomena. The following artistic and historical periods are considered in stages: the Ancient world, Antiquity, the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, the Baroque, the Enlightenment, Romanticism, Postromanticism, Modern I, Modern II, Modern III, Postmodern, and as an afterword — "The Golden age of Russian artistic culture".

The peculiarity of the series of essays published by the magazine is that with the maximum compactness of the presentation, it provides a summary of the main phenomena of world artistic culture, covered in General both from the point of view of the General historical process, and in relation to various types of creativity (literature, fne art, architecture, music, theater and cinema). At the same time, the usual categorization of national schools and the division into separate types of art with the genre specifcation inherent in each of them is overcome, which meets the positive trends of globalization and provides a holistic view of artistic phenomena. The following artistic and historical periods are considered in stages: the Ancient world, Antiquity, the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, the Baroque, the Enlightenment, Romanticism, Postromanticism, Modern I, Modern II, Modern III, Postmodern, and as an afterword — «The Golden age of Russian artistic culture».

L’articolo illustra l’evoluzione del rapporto medico-paziente in diverse epoche storiche: l’Antichità, il Medioevo, l’Epoca Moderna. L’Autore sottolinea l’importanza che ha la Storia della Medicina nel prevenire il pericolo di una tecnicizzazione del rapporto medico paziente e nell’arricchire questo stesso rapporto delle dimensioni antropologica, cosmologica e metafisica. Nell’illustrare tale percorso l’Autore si avvale di alcune raffigurazioni artistiche. Le opere d’arte possiedono forza terapeutica: “ cultura e medicina umana sono profondamente intrecciate. Ogni forma d’arte può essere di aiuto alla diagnostica, alla terapia, alla prevenzione e alla riabilitazione e può offrire diverse forme di aiuto nel rapporto con la malattia, con la morte e con il dolore”.
 Il rapporto medico-paziente non dipende soltanto alla medicina, ma è anche espressione della cultura e della società alle quali appartiene la medicina stessa. Per contribuire all’umanizzazione della medicina, dell’assistenza e dell’ospedalizzazione è necessario tener presente il panorama culturale, perché la medicina non si pone fuori dalla società, sebbene abbia una sua dinamica autonomia. L’Autore sottolinea che l’obbiettivo della medicina del futuro deve consistere nel ristabilire un collegamneto tra l’antropologia, la cosmologia, la metafisica e la scienza. Non deve essere una separazione tra una medicina di tipo sperimentale, “scientifica” da un lato, e una medicina che si avvale dell’antropologia della cosmologia e della metafisica dall’altro. A questo riguardo il rapporto medico-paziente è il nodo centrale nel quale si può realizzare l’incontro tra le scienze naturali con le scienze umanistiche.

Comment: World without Art

When I compare the town in Middle Ages with that of Modern Ages, I found a pretty remarkable difference in quality between the former and the latter, although both are towns under feudlism. In my article, I go through the process of changes from the Middle Ages to the Modern Ages, from the viewpoint of prospect of towns.How many towns were there? How were they scattered? The towns in Middle Ages were rather few. They were 500 and so. On the other hand, in the Modern Ages. I found much more towns-nearly 4.000, most of which came into existence in the Modern Ages.It is remarkable that the towns in the Middle Ages generally enlarged to grow into those in the Middle Ages and many of those which were formed in the Modern Ages also lay their foundation in the former ages.The characteristic of the towns in the Middle Ages is that of some villages, some farm villages which scattered about. The military, industry and commerce, each of those three was on its way to separate from agriculture, and the social division of labour between the towns and the villages had not been completed on the contrary, in the Modern Ages, the towns were completely separated from the villages. The city, where the military class and commercial class live, is quite different from the villages, a dwelling place for the agricultural class. Accordingly the towns changed into a large, single group consisting of many houses that are in close order. This changes was inclined to be hastened through the agreement or the planned construcion of towns of “Daimyo-Lord” in the Modern Ages.The rapid increase of population is the most distinct characteristic of the towns in the Modern Ages. This phenomenon was brought about as many people removed from the farm-villages to the towns from the latter half of the 16th century. In this process, “Ji Samurai”-who lived in the village, the landowner and merchant became “Samurai”-who lived in the town, or upper class merchants in the town, and many of middle and lower class farmers, common tradesmen or artisan.To make a long article short, the town in the Middle Ages, which had character of community connected with the land, changed and grew into the towns in Modern Ages, modern society in which gainning profit and making the most proffessional ability are fundamental.

The object of the proposed cycle of essays is that with a maximal compactness of presentment it presents a cumulative overview of the chief phenomena of world artistic culture, spanned in whole, both from the perspective of an overall historical process and in relation to the various arts (literature, the visual arts, architecture, music, theater and cinema). At the same time, it avoids the customary rubrication according to national schools and division into separate arts forms with the specifi cation of genre inherent to each one of them, which is in accord with the positive tendencies of globalization and provides an integral vision of artistic phenomena. A phased examination of the following periods of art history is foreseen: the Ancient World, Antiquity, the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, the Baroque period, the Enlightenment, Romanticism, the 1st Modern style, the 2nd Modern style, the 3rd Modern style, the Postmodern style, and as an afterword — “The Golden Age of Russian Artistic Culture.”

The essay provides a summary overview of the main phenomena of artistic culture during the Middle Ages in the West and the East (from the Birth of Christ to the 13th century). The paper covers the global art culture of the medieval period both from the point of view of the general historical process and in the consideration of individual types of art (sculpture, architecture, painting, literature, music). The author examines the achievements of medieval authors in these types of creativity: the increasing trends towards simplification in depiction of man and mythological creatures in Western art, the progressive development of art in the East (the rise of architecture and urban planning, the development of fine art). There is a turn towards the acquisition of civilizational forms of existence in Western art under the influence of feudalism and monotheistic religion. Special attention is paid to understanding the category of the universe in the medieval period, the construction of fortifications as reflections of the militant mood of the Middle Ages, manifestations of lyrical imagery in the artistic culture of the West and the East. As a result, the author concludes that medieval art represents a huge, richest layer of the artistic culture of mankind, the most important stage for the creation of artistic classics in the East and later in Russia.

In this article I trace some of the main tenets of the struggle between nominalism and realism as identified by John Deely in his Four ages of understanding. The aim is to assess Deely's claim that the Age of Modernity was nominalist and that the coming age, the Age of Postmodernism — which he portrays as a renaissance of the late middle ages and as starting with Peirce — is realist. After a general overview of how Peirce interpreted the nominalist-realist controversy, Deely gives special attention to Thomas Aquinas's On being and essence and the realism it entails. A subsequent discussion of the Modern Period shows that the issue of nominalism and realism is very much tied up with different conceptions of the intellect. Deely credits the theory of evolution with bringing us a conception of the intellect that is closer to that of the Middle Ages and that opens the way for a truly realistic “fourth age” of the understanding.

В статье рассматриваются предпосылки формирования, становление и развитие знаний о физиологии кровообращения. Актуальность данной работы обусловлена необходимостью обобщения и дополнения результатов отдельных исследований о ходе становления и развития физиологии кровообращения в историко-научном аспекте, что позволит выявить ключевые этапы в формировании целостного представления о процессах циркуляции крови. В связи с этим целью настоящего обзора является анализ основных достижений в области физиологии кровообращения начиная с древней эпохи и заканчивая Новым временем (начало XX в.). При подготовке статьи использовались преимущественно публикации в изданиях, включенных в РИНЦ, PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science. Предпочтение было отдано материалам, опубликованным в последние 10 лет. В статье показано, что уже в древнюю эпоху ученые задавались вопросами о роли сердца в процессе кровообращения, о связи между пульсом и циркуляцией крови. В Средние века продолжилось накопление эмпирических знаний в данной области, расширилось и углубилось понимание строения и функционирования органов, входящих в систему циркуляции крови. В Новое время процесс циркуляции крови в организме человека получил свое полное описание, стала изучаться роль нервной системы в процессе кровообращения. В наши дни исследования в области физиологии кровообращения продолжаются. The article considers the prerequisites for the formation of physiology of blood circulation, its development and advancement of knowledge in the related field. The relevance of this work is due to the need to generalize and supplement the results of individual studies on the formation and development of circulatory physiology in the historical-scientific aspect, which will identify the key stages in shaping a holistic view of blood circulation processes. In this regard, the purpose of this review is to analyze the main achievements in the field of circulatory physiology from ancient times to the Modern Age (early 20th century). In preparing the article, publications in journals included in the Russian Science Citation Index, PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science were mainly used; materials published in the last 10 years were preferred. The article shows that already in ancient times scientists wondered about the role of the heart in the process of blood circulation and the connection between the pulse and blood circulation. During the Middle Ages, empirical knowledge in this area continued to accumulate, the understanding of the structure and functioning of organs that are part of the blood circulation system expanded and deepened. In the Modern Age, the process of blood circulation in the human body was fully described and the role of the nervous system in blood circulation began to be studied. Nowadays, research in the field of circulatory physiology continues.

Having heard my first lecture, you now recognize, think, that my position is in some respects closely akin to that of Dr. Hisamatsu. Hisamatsu, too, asserts that man is one with the dharmakaya, the absolutely formless Subject, though man is not generally aware of this fact. He often spoke of man's different modes of self-understanding in the middle ages, in the modern age, and in the post-modern age, as distinct ways of living, thinking, and existing. It is said that the modern age is the age of humanism, or the age in which man has attained consciousness of himself. But according to Hisamatsu, the man who has become conscious of his humanity has in reality fallen into Nihil. For one who truly awakens, the true self awakens to itself. Though there are opportunities which lead to the awakening, it does not depend upon a Savior. That which sustains me, the ground of my being, does not exist somewhere apart from me. In the event that awaken, awaken to myself. Of course in this case I should not be understood in the manner of modern humanism. Modern man does not recognize what the self really is. The self is one with the dharmakaya, but there is also a distinction between them. This very fact is the ground on which awakening takes place. Up to this point my opinions do not differ from Hisamatsu's very much. If so, one may ask, why does not Hisamatsu expound the primary and secondary contacts between man and the ground of being? The omission can be explained as follows: In Hisamatsu's view, Christianity teaches that man is saved only by the Savior, who came from a heaven which has always been separated from the world. Man's salvation depends on Him because man, having fallen into the absolute dilemma of sin and death, cannot get out of it, cannot save himself by his own power. According to Hisamatsu, modern dialectical theology also takes this position. But this is a misunderstanding. Karl Barth's theology, at least, is quite different. But, says Hisamatsu, though dialectical theology and existential theology are aware of the modern situation of nihilism and despair, they are nevertheless unable to over-

the domain of Art critique and becoming a philosophical argument. How can we think of Perspective as symbolic Form? Is Perspective really a symbolic form? Why is Perspective so important? Because at the beginning of the Modern Age, Perspective as spiritual figure grounds many symbolic or even many scientific constructions. We could we say that perspective open the foundation of modern science as such. The “Geometrization” of Vision, beginning with perspective, will be for us the interpretative key in order to understand the Modern Age as a whole. This understanding will allow us to understand the anthropologic dimension arising from the Modern Age, called „Perspectivism“. Assuming that perspective was neither only an invention of painting nor of geometry nor of philosophy, taken as singular fields of human inquiry, we will try to sketch the genesis of “perspective” from an interdisciplinary point of view. By doing so, we will also try to fix its deep significance for the anthropology of the Modern Age. Living and feeling in a perspectival world is the real invention of the Modern Age, one that overcame the closed Cosmos of the Middle Ages in order to reveal to mankind its own potential. Our interdisciplinary approach will proceed from many points of view (history of art, science, theology, anthropology) and converge on the idea of a new kind of human experience. Such an interdisciplinary approach will open new questions about our present time. Are we justified in thinking of our experience today as perspectival? What does it mean today to think from perspectives in the manifold dimensions of our living and to face to the complexity of our times?

The Pyrenean Lake Montcortès sediments hold the longest continuous and absolutely varve-dated record of the Mediterranean region, encompassing the last three millennia, from the Late Bronze Age to the present. The reconstruction of vegetation and landscape dynamics during this time period has advanced gradually, following the progress of absolute dating by varve counting, and has been progressively published and updated in a number of papers dealing with specific time intervals at different temporal resolutions. This paper synthesizes all these studies in a single composite paleoecological sequence constrained by a single age-depth varve model. The final resolution of this reconstruction is bidecadal, on average, but some periods have been resolved at quasidecadal (Middle Ages) and subdecadal (Modern Age to present) resolutions. The study is focused on the timing of anthropization and the further development of vegetation under climatic and anthropogenic drivers until the shaping of present landscapes. An additional advantage of Montcortès is that the local history of the Pallars region, where the lake is located, is well documented and can be easily correlated with the paleoecological record. Contrary to former interpretations of general landscape anthropization of the Pyrenees during the Middle Ages, the Montcortès catchment was irreversibly transformed by anthropic activities at the beginning of the Iron Age (ca. 750-650 BCE). From this point, the catchment underwent successive transformations due to varied human uses (fire, grazing, cereal cultivation, weed/ruderal plant expansions, hemp cultivation/retting), which have been related to the different cultural phases and sociopolitical changes documented in the local historical records. The regional forests, dominated by Pinus and Quercus, experienced four main clearance events (RD) during the Iron Age (RD1; ca. 300 BCE), the Roman Period (RD2; ca. 300 CE), the Middle Ages (RD3; ca. 1000 CE) and the Modern Age (RD4; ca. 1800 CE). The detailed trends of the last two deforestation events and their causes could be studied at a decadal resolution, which significantly improved interpretation quality in ecological terms. The potential effects of climatic changes and the eventual interactions with human activities on catchment vegetation and regional forests throughout the record have also been discussed. The Montcortès record has been compared with other records at local (Pyrenees), regional (Iberian Peninsula) and biome (Mediterranean) scales. Locally and regionally, anthropization times and further ecological trends showed significant heterogeneity according to elevation, biogeographical patterns and cultural trends. The most significant coincidence is an intensification of human pressure, as noted in forest clearing and extensive land use, during several phases of the Middle Ages. At the Mediterranean level, the Montcortès record emerges as a unique sequence for the western sector of this biome that should be complemented with similar archives from the central and eastern Mediterranean. The most promising candidates for such sequences are discussed on the basis of available Mediterranean varved records.

The article presents the analysis of philosophical opinions on historical slavery. The understanding of slavery by the sages of Antiquity, the Middle Ages and the Modern Age has bee analyzed. It was stated that in the ancient world, it was firmly coined in social conscience and gave rise to no doubts concerning its legitimacy. For the first time in the history of the philosophical conception, the notion of spiritual slavery is formed in the Middle Ages. The issue of slavery acquires moral and ethical tome in the age of Renaissance, whereas the Modern Age represents it in the social and economical aspect. Marxism considers slavery as the main form of exploitation together with serfdom and wage labor.