Risk beyond the pap: A review of key epidemiological studies on cervical cancer risk factors and populations at highest risk

Abstract

Cervical cancer remains a significant public health concern, with notable mortality rates worldwide despite advancements in screening technologies such as the Pap smear. While screening has substantially reduced the disease's incidence, understanding risk factors that extend beyond regular screening practices is essential for comprehensive cervical cancer prevention. This review synthesizes key epidemiological studies focused on the various biological, lifestyle, and demographic factors influencing cervical cancer risk, thereby identifying the populations at the highest risk. The methodology encompasses rigorous selection criteria, including studies from renowned databases such as PubMed and Scopus, and evaluates the strengths and limitations of common epidemiological study designs like case-control and cohort studies. The review categorizes risk factors into four primary areas: HPV infection, smoking, sexual behavior and contraceptive use, and genetic predisposition, each substantiated by evidence from recent epidemiological research. Additionally, it assesses populations facing elevated risk, such as those influenced by socioeconomic, geographic, and ethnic disparities, as well as immunocompromised and age-defined groups, to outline how these variables affect cervical cancer susceptibility. The findings underscore persistent disparities in cervical cancer incidence, especially among underserved and minority populations, where access to healthcare and awareness of risk factors remain limited. This review emphasizes the importance of addressing these disparities through targeted public health policies and enhanced screening protocols. Finally, the paper recommends future research directions, highlighting the need for longitudinal and multi-population studies to better understand the complex interplay of risk factors. Insights from this review can inform public health initiatives and shape preventative measures that extend beyond screening to reduce cervical cancer risk across vulnerable populations.