Abstract
Considering the nutritional value, whey is an excellent ingredient for the development of food products, in line with the concept of a circular economy for the reuse of industry by-products. The main objective of this work was to evaluate the impact of the whey addition on the rheology of wheat flour dough and breadmaking performance, using both empirical and fundamental methods. Different levels of commercial whey powder (0%, 12%, 16% and 20% w/w) were tested in a bread formulation previously optimized. Dough mixing tests were performed using Micro-doughLab and Consistograph equipment, to determine the water absorptions of different formulations and evaluate empirical rheology parameters related to mixing tolerances. Biaxial extension was applied by the Alveograph to simulate fermentation during the baking process. Fermented doughs were characterized in a Texturometer using penetration and extensibility tests, and by small amplitude oscillatory shear (SAOS) measurements, a fundamental rheology method, in a Rheometer applying frequency sweeps. Loaf volume and firmness were used to study the breadmaking quality. Despite a negative impact on the empirical rheology parameters of the dough and poorer baking results, the use of this by-product should be considered for nutritional and sustainability reasons. In addition, significant correlations (r2 > 0.60) between the dough rheology parameters obtained from the empirical measurements were established. Changes in the gluten structure were not accurately detected by the SAOS measurements and Texture Profile Analysis of the doughs, and a correlation between fundamental and empirical measurements was not found. Consistograph or Micro-doughLab devices can be used to estimate bread firmness. Extensional tests in the Texturometer, using SMS/Kieffer Dough and Gluten Extensibility Rig, may predict loaf volume.
Highlights
IntroductionConsidering the large amounts of whey produced all the years by the cheese industry, coupled with its high organic matter composition, namely lactose and proteins, leading to high chemical oxygen demand when disposed into the effluents, whey has been considered an important pollution problem and several strategies have been developed to add value to this by-product, including bringing it back to the food value-chain, as in circular economy principles [1,2].As whey contains some important components, such as lactose, proteins and minerals, it is recognized as a valuable source of high-grade proteins, mainly β-lactoglobulin and α-lactalbumin, which constitute ca. 50% and 20% of the total protein content, respectively; the remainder is accounted for by immunoglobulins, bovine serum albumin, protease peptones and other minor proteins [3,4].Fluids 2020, 5, 50; doi:10.3390/fluids5020050 www.mdpi.com/journal/fluidsThe excellent functional properties of whey proteins have been recognized, namely gelation and binding properties; whey is widely used as a functional ingredient in many formulated bakery and dairy foods [2,5,6]
There was a decrease of the water absorption values obtained using Micro-doughLab and Consistograph when adding whey, decreasing dough development time (DDT), softening (DSO), and peak energy (PE), but increasing dough stability (DS), time to reach Prmax, tolerance to kneading (Tol) and dough consistency after 250 and 450 s
Gélinas et al [9] used fermented dairy products for bread and obtained the lowest water absorption value when whey was used, and higher values of peak time and dough stability were measured in a Farinograph
Summary
Considering the large amounts of whey produced all the years by the cheese industry, coupled with its high organic matter composition, namely lactose and proteins, leading to high chemical oxygen demand when disposed into the effluents, whey has been considered an important pollution problem and several strategies have been developed to add value to this by-product, including bringing it back to the food value-chain, as in circular economy principles [1,2].As whey contains some important components, such as lactose, proteins and minerals, it is recognized as a valuable source of high-grade proteins, mainly β-lactoglobulin and α-lactalbumin, which constitute ca. 50% and 20% of the total protein content, respectively; the remainder is accounted for by immunoglobulins, bovine serum albumin, protease peptones and other minor proteins [3,4].Fluids 2020, 5, 50; doi:10.3390/fluids5020050 www.mdpi.com/journal/fluidsThe excellent functional properties of whey proteins have been recognized, namely gelation and binding properties; whey is widely used as a functional ingredient in many formulated bakery and dairy foods [2,5,6]. Cheese whey is rich in lactose; its biotechnological value as a fermentation substrate has been explored, namely to produce bioethanol, biogas and lactic acid [2,7,8]. There are several studies about the incorporation of whey in traditional bread [9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17], revealing an increase of total mineral content, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium and zinc contents and lactose and lactic acid, followed by a positive effect on crust color, sweet and yeast flavor, expressed as a positive sensory impact. The use of whey proteins on the mimetic effect of gluten, for the development of gluten-free dough, has been investigated [18,19,20,21,22]
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