Abstract
This article reviews the human–machine interaction (HMI) technologies used for telemanipulation by small unmanned systems (SUS) with remote manipulators. SUS, including land, air, and sea vehicles, can perform a wide range of reconnaissance and manipulation tasks with varying levels of autonomy. SUS operations involving physical interactions with the environment require some level of operator involvement, ranging from direct control to goal-oriented supervision. Telemanipulation remains a challenging task for all levels of human interaction because the operator and the vehicle are not colocated, and operators require HMI technologies that facilitate manipulation from a remote location. This article surveys the human operator interfacing for over 70 teleoperated systems, summarizes the effects of physical and visual interface factors on user performance, and discusses these findings in the context of telemanipulating SUS. This article is of importance to SUS researchers and practitioners who will directly benefit from HMI implementations that improve telemanipulation performance.
Highlights
T HIS article surveys the human–machine interaction (HMI) technologies for small unmanned systems (SUS) equipped with robotic manipulators capable of performing telemanipulation tasks
Applying these inclusion criteria resulted in references from the unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), unmanned ground vehicles (UGVs), remotely operated vehicles (ROVs), and USV literature, as well as literature from the broader human–robot interaction community when the scope of the telemanipulation task was similar to SUS telemanipulation
The purpose of this article was to collate, summarize, and discuss literature focused on HMI for performing telemanipulation tasks using SUS and identify areas where further research is needed
Summary
T HIS article surveys the human–machine interaction (HMI) technologies for small unmanned systems (SUS) equipped with robotic manipulators capable of performing telemanipulation tasks. A telemanipulation task in the context of SUS operations is any action that requires physical interaction with the remote environment with a robotic manipulator, based on control input that arrives through teleoperation. The vehicle in the context of telemanipulation must include a robotic manipulator capable of performing a manipulation task. This article considers the following four levels of autonomy [25], [26]: remote control, human-assisted, human-delegated, and human-supervised These categories are described in greater detail below (note that fully autonomous systems are not considered in this analysis as human operators are not involved with the telemanipulation task and can be ignored by the system [23])
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