Abstract
BackgroundBioanalytical tools have been shown to be useful in drinking water quality assessments. Here, we applied a panel of in vitro bioassays to assess the treatment efficiency of two pilot-scale treatments: ozonation and granular activated carbon (GAC) filtration at a drinking water treatment plant (DWTP). The pilot-scale systems were studied alongside a full-scale treatment process consisting of biological activated carbon (BAC) filtration, UV disinfection, and monochloramine dosing. Both systems were fed the same raw water treated with coagulation/flocculation/sedimentation and sand filtration. The endpoints studied were oxidative stress (Nrf2 activity), genotoxicity (micronuclei formations), aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) activation, as well as estrogen receptor (ER) and androgen receptor (AR) activity.ResultsNrf2, AhR, and ER activities and genotoxic effects were detected in the incoming raw water and variability was observed between the sampling events. Compared to most of the samples taken from the full-scale treatment system, lower Nrf2, AhR, and ER bioactivities as well as genotoxicity were observed in all samples from the pilot-scale systems across all sampling events. The most pronounced treatment effect was a 12-fold reduction in Nrf2 activity and a sixfold decrease in micronuclei formations following ozonation alone. GAC filtration alone resulted in sevenfold and fivefold reductions in Nrf2 activity and genotoxicity, respectively, in the same sampling event. Higher bioactivities were detected in most samples from the full-scale system suggesting a lack of treatment effect. No androgenic nor anti-androgenic activities were observed in any sample across all sampling events.ConclusionsUsing effect-based methods, we have shown the presence of bioactive chemicals in the raw water used for drinking water production, including oxidative stress, AhR and ER activities as well as genotoxicity. The currently used treatment technologies were unable to fully remove the observed bioactivities. Ozonation and GAC filtration showed a high treatment efficiency and were able to consistently remove the bioactivities observed in the incoming water. This is important knowledge for the optimization of existing drinking water treatment designs and the utilization of alternative treatment technologies.
Highlights
Drinking water sources, surface water, are increasingly subject to contamination risks from various anthropogenic activities including agricultural land use, urban stormwater discharge, wastewater treatment plantYu et al Environ Sci Eur (2021) 33:124 outlets and long-distance air pollution
Cost has been reported as the primary factor as to why the utility operators have not considered switching to other disinfection methods such as ozone or UV [5]
In this study, we observed oxidative stress, genotoxicity, aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR), and estrogen receptor (ER) agonist activities in raw water used for drinking water production over the course of repeated sampling events
Summary
Surface water, are increasingly subject to contamination risks from various anthropogenic activities including agricultural land use, urban stormwater discharge, wastewater treatment plantYu et al Environ Sci Eur (2021) 33:124 outlets and long-distance air pollution. Drinking water purification methods commonly utilized at drinking water treatment plants (DWTPs) include different combinations of the following basic physical and chemical processes: coagulation, sedimentation, filtration, and disinfection [chlorination or ultraviolet (UV) irradiation]. These methods, do not completely eliminate micropollutants that may remain in the treated drinking water [4] and lead to human exposure to hazardous compounds or mixtures. The pilot-scale systems were studied alongside a full-scale treatment process consisting of biological activated carbon (BAC) filtration, UV disinfection, and monochloramine dosing Both systems were fed the same raw water treated with coagulation/flocculation/ sedimentation and sand filtration. The endpoints studied were oxidative stress (Nrf activity), genotoxicity (micronuclei formations), aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) activation, as well as estrogen receptor (ER) and androgen receptor (AR) activity
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