Religion in the Xunzi: What Does Tian 天 Have to Do with It?

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Interpreters of Xunzi have disagreed about whether there is a religious element to be found in his thought, and if there is such an element, where it is to be found. Much of the debate has focused on the notion of tian 天 (commonly translated as “Heaven”). This essay reviews some of these debates and the challenges that are involved in seeing Xunzi as a religious thinker. I situate Xunzi’s thought against the broader background of Confucian religiousness and propose that although it is not unreasonable to see a religious attitude in his discussions of tian, the primary locus of Xunzi’s religious element is better found in his views about the human realm. Using Frederick Streng’s conception of religion as “a means to ultimate transformation,” we can see Xunzi’s religiosity in the path to sagehood that he articulates. The essay traces out some of the major elements of his program of self-cultivation, as a way of sketching the religious dimension of the Xunzi.