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Abstract
Trace elements produce double-edged effects on the lives of animals and particularly of humans. On one hand, these elements represent potentially toxic agents; on the other hand, they are essentially needed to support growth and development and confer protection against disease. Certain trace elements and metals are particularly involved in humoral and cellular immune responses, playing the roles of cofactors for essential enzymes and antioxidant molecules. The amount taken up and the accumulation in human tissues decisively control whether the exerted effects are toxic or beneficial. For these reasons, there is an urgent need to re-consider, harmonize and update current legislative regulations regarding the concentrations of trace elements in food and in drinking water. This review aims to provide information on the interrelation of certain trace elements with risk of autoimmune disease, with a particular focus on type 1 diabetes and multiple sclerosis. In addition, an overview of the current regulations and regulatory gaps is provided in order to highlight the importance of this issue for everyday nutrition and human health.
Highlights
The onset of different diseases, including autoimmune, metabolic, neurodegenerative diseases and cancer, has been correlated with metals, metalloids and the excess or deficiency of essential oligoelements in the body (Figure 1)
The mechanism of protection against metal/metalloid toxicity can be lacking or insufficient in food and more in general for human health, and those covered below are mainly bio-accessible through the case of genetic variants predisposed to autoimmune diseases, environmental and epigenetic and water, this review aims to point out the importance of homogenous legislative regulations factors
The life of organisms is strongly influenced by trace elements, by their bioavailability in the environment and by their homeostasis, which must be maintained in the organism itself
Summary
The onset of different diseases, including autoimmune, metabolic, neurodegenerative diseases and cancer, has been correlated with metals, metalloids and the excess or deficiency of essential oligoelements in the body (Figure 1). The mechanism of protection against metal/metalloid toxicity can be lacking or insufficient in food and more in general for human health, and those covered below are mainly bio-accessible through the case of genetic variants predisposed to autoimmune diseases, environmental and epigenetic and water, this review aims to point out the importance of homogenous legislative regulations factors. Mucosal surfaces diseases and more in general for human health, and those covered below are mainly bio-accessible play a key role in normal and dysfunctional immune responses [11] All these elements may be affected through food and water, this review aims to point out the importance of homogenous legislative. Supplementation with these micronutrients can correct a Th2 cell-mediated immune response, inducing a response mediated by Th1 [10]
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