Abstract
BackgroundMale height is positively associated with social dominance, and more agonistic/competitive behaviours. However, the ‘Napoleon complex’ or ‘small man syndrome’ suggests that smaller males are more assertive and punitive to compensate for lack of height and social dominance. Here, we assess possible relationships between height and punitive behaviours in a real-world setting.MethodsUsing a non-experimental correlational design, we analysed data on 61 male association football referees from four professional leagues in England, and explored relationships between their height and punitive behaviours in the form of yellow cards, red cards and penalties given during an entire season.ResultsOverall there was no effect of referee height on fouls awarded. However, there was a main effect of height on yellow cards awarded, with shorter referees issuing more yellow cards. The same effect was found for red cards and penalties, though this was moderated by league. In the lower leagues, more red cards and penalties were awarded by relatively shorter referees, but in the higher leagues more red cards and penalties were awarded by relatively taller referees.ConclusionsThese findings from real-life public dominance encounters show that height is associated with punitive behaviours, but is sensitive to context.
Highlights
Male height is positively associated with social dominance, and more agonistic/competitive behaviours
A red card involves using excessive force against an opponent that exceeds the necessary use of force, resulting in the player being sent from the field of play
The present study examined the relationship between football referee height and punitive actions, in the form of fouls, yellow cards, red cards, and penalties awarded
Summary
Male height is positively associated with social dominance, and more agonistic/competitive behaviours. Throughout the animal kingdom, body size has been associated with successful competition and the ability to obtain or maintain resources. Larger individuals are more likely to attain social dominance and enhance their ability to acquire resources and mates in the presence of others, either through agonistic or affiliate strategies [1, 2]. Taller men are perceived to be more dominant [7] and more leaderlike [8]. They consider themselves to be more dominant than shorter rivals [9]
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