Redefining the Miraculous: al-Ghazālī, Ibn Rushd and Said Nursi on Qur'anic Miracle Stories

This article is intended to illustrate that the hermeneutics of al-Ghazzl influenced Ibn Rushd in a certain degree. One can come across a number of contexts in the works of Ibn Rushd such as Taḥfut al-taḥfut, Faṣl al-maql and al-Kashf , in which he criticizes al-Ghazzl in relation to the interpretation of religious texts. However, one can notice that Ibn Rushd is deeply influenced by the views of al-Ghazzl on the matter of hermeneutics, especially concerning the definition of interpretation, the categorization of the ambiguous wordings in the religious texts as well as the classification of the groups of people authorized to fulfill the task of interpretation. In fact, Ibn Rushd's threefold graduation of people as the masses , the theologians , and the demonstrative people was masterminded and introduced by al-Ghazzl. In addition, it is from al-Ghazzl and from his interpretation of the 125 th verse of Srat al-Naḥl that Ibn Rushd borrowed the suggestion that as regards the interpretation of religious texts, each of these three groups should adopt one of the three methods described as rhetorical, dialectical, and demonstrative. Another important context where Ibn Rushd is clearly under the influence of al-Ghazzl is the issue how the lawful method of interpretation is to be applied to the religious texts. Regarding this issue, he took up al-Ghazzl's fivefold categorization of being as essential existence, sensual existence, imaginative existence, mental existence and analogical existence, suggesting to interpret the religious texts on the basis of this categorization.

The dialogue between Imam Al-Ghazali and Ibn Rushd is one of the most monumental stories in the study of Islamic philosophy, in which his criticism of Al-Ghazali is refuted by Ibn Rushd with his various arguments. The purpose of this article is to strengthen Imam Al-Ghazali's criticism of the philosophical eschatological paradigm. The research method used is descriptive qualitative. The results of this study indicate that (1) Imam Al-Ghazali sentenced the philosophers to be disbelievers who held this view of nature as eternality, God does not know the details, and the resurrection of the soul on the Day of Judgment. (2) However, this verdict was criticized by Ibn Rushd. That nature is eternal, because its existence coincides with the beginning of time. Then this knowledge of God has nothing to do with a detailed or global model of knowledge, because God is the substance that causes an object to exist. Then this religious text is metaphorical in nature, so it is not certain that it is the body that is resurrected. (3) It's just that, the majority of scholars' from Sunni circles support Imam Al-Ghazali's statement. They based it on religious texts QS. Al-Hadid verse 3 about the eternality of nature, QS Al-An'am verse 28 regarding the knowledge of God, and QS Al-Kahf verse 47 and Al-Anbiya '104 regarding the resurrection of the body.

مسألة تأويل النص الديني وتوظيفه لخدمة القضايا الفلسفية والکلامية من المسائل الشائکة في الفکر الإسلامي، حيث وقع فيها الخلاف بين طوائف المسلمين، وکان لفلاسفة الإسلام نصيب کبير من الإسهام الفکري في هذه المسألة، وقد أدلوا بدلوهم فيها محاولين التوفيق بين النصوص الشرعية والقضايا العقلية وکان من أبرز المهتمين بهذه المسألة من الفلاسفة المسلمين الشيخ الرئيس ابن سينا، وابن رشد الفيلسوف الشهير، وذلک أنهم في بعض مسائلهم الفلسفية کانوا يحاولون ربطها بنصوص الدين لمحاولة البرهنة عليها من جانب، وإکسابها قداسة وصحة من جانب آخر، وقد وفقوا في بعض من ذلک، وجانبهم الصواب في الکثير من المسائل، وفي هذا البحث تعرضت لمسألة تأويل النصوص الدينية وتوظيفها عند الشيخ الرئيس ابن سينا وعند فيلسوف قرطبة ابن رشد، وقد تبين من خلال البحث مدى حرص ابن سينا وابن رشد الشديد على التوفيق بين آراءهما وبين النصوص الدينية، وأنهما في کثير من الأحيان قد لجئا إلى التأويل التعسفي لبعض نصوص الشرع الشريف بهدف إلباس آراءهم ونظرياتهم ثوب القداسة، وجعلها محفوفة بإطار من الدين، حتى لا يجرأ شخص على نقدها والطعن فيها. وکل هذا قد أسلمنا إلى نتيجة مهمة مفادها، أن إعمال العقل في النص الشرعي بدون توفر أدوات فهمه يؤدي بصاحبه إلى الوقوع في مزالق ومخاطر عظيمة، وأن الخوض في تأويل النصوص الشرعية لا يتم إلا بعد اکتساب العلوم المؤهلة لهذه المهمة العظيمة. The issue of interpreting the religious text and employing it to serve philosophical and theological issues is one of the thorny issues in Islamic thought, where disagreement occurred among Muslim sects, and the philosophers of Islam had a great share of intellectual contribution in this issue, and they gave their opinion in it, trying to reconcile between legal texts and mental issues. Among the most prominent Muslim philosophers interested in this issue were the chief Sheikh Ibn Sina, and the famous philosopher Ibn Rushd, and that in some of their philosophical issues they were trying to link them to the texts of religion in an attempt to prove them on the one hand, and make them holiness and health on the other hand, and they were successful in some of that, And their right side in many issues, and in this research I was exposed to the issue of interpretation of religious texts and their employment with the chief Sheikh Ibn Sina and with the Cordoba philosopher Ibn Rushd, and it was shown through the research how keen Ibn Sina and Ibn Rushd were to reconcile their views with religious texts, and that they are in many Sometimes they resorted to the arbitrary interpretation of some texts of the Shari’a in order to dress their views and theories in the guise of holiness, and make them surrounded by a framework of religion, so that no one would dare criticize and challenge them. And all of this has delivered us to an important conclusion that the realization of the mind in the legal text without the availability of tools for understanding it leads the owner to fall into great pitfalls and dangers, and that delving into the interpretation of the legal texts is only after acquiring the sciences qualified for this great task.

Rethinking the Act of Being has been a central issue for Islamic philosophers. They have considered that the Act of Being is God, that it is another name for God. Supporting the metaphysics of the Act of Being, or the metaphysics of Essence, the Islamic philosophers have identified the Act of Being with reality or on the other hand Essence with reality. They have been talking about the truth above all truths, about Essence above all essence, about the Act of Being, emphasizing God’s absoluteness and transcendence in all respects. Al-Kindi started this discussion in Islamic philosophy, and it was later deepened in the studies by Al-Farabi, Ibn Sina, Ibn Rushd, Mulla Sandra Shirazi, whose metaphysics branched out depending on the approach to this thematic issue. However, the metaphysics of the Act of Being prevails, especially in the views presented by Ibn Sina, Ibn Rushd and Mulla Sandra Shirazi.

This chapter describes al-Farabi (870–950 CE) and Ibn Rushd as both “interpret[ing] divine revelation and human reason as two forms of knowledge which complete rather than nullify each other.” Rushd recommended that in cases where “divine revelation has principle contradictions” with conclusions reached by human reason and natural science, an “allegorical interpretation of the Qur’anic words” was the best approach to resolving any such apparent conflicts. She concludes by noting that “[t]he ability of al-Ghazali to promote his own opinion in reaction to the questions raised by Al-Farabi, Ibn Sina and other Islamic philosophers, followed by Ibn Rushd’s reaffirmation of the harmony between human reason and divine revelation, and the unique dialogue that ensued—this is the cultural heritage of the classical Islamic era.” The author’s treatment of the relation between divine revelation and human reason in connection to divine and natural law, and the ability of Muslim scholars to engage these questions through open academic dialogue, hints at her own post-Soviet context.

Ibn Rushd al-Jadd is one of the most important and influential Maliki jurists of all times. Ibn Rushd’s period of training coincided with the fall of the petty kingdoms ( ṭawāʾif ) into which al-Andalus split after the collapse of the Umayyad caliphate of Cordova. Ibn Rushd’s intelligence and deep knowledge of Islamic law earned him the esteem of the Almoravid rulers, which enabled him to exert considerable influence on the most relevant political and religious issues of his time. This essay draws mainly on biographical literature and historical chronicles, Ibn Rushd’s own writings and the collection of legal responsa of Aḥmad al-Wansharīsī (d. 914/1508), al-Miʿyār al-muʿrib . Ibn Rushd insisted that the fundamentals of the law ( uṣūl al-fiqh ) must be studied together with the branches of law ( furūʿ al-fiqh ) and he himself made important contributions to contemporary legal practice, as both a qāḍī and a muftī . Keywords:Aḥmad al-Wansharīsī; furūʿ al-fiqh ; Ibn Rushd al-Jadd; Islamic law; uṣūl al-fiqh

In order that Christians responsibly discern Jesus' words, “You shall love your neighbor,” Christian education today should include learning about Muslims. And, particularly since the religious life of Muslims is at the root of their otherness, Christian children should learn more than the customs of Muslims' daily living. One educational method, for those who do not have natural contacts with Muslims, is an approach familiar to American Christian children - story-telling based on scripture, looking at characters in the Qur'an who are also in the Bible. Islam must be understood as a religion that emphasizes orthopraxis, right living through following God's will. Thus, Christian children can use the stories to talk appreciatively about both Islamic beliefs and practices. In the process, they can reflect on their own. The stories of Noah, Abraham, Joseph, and Moses and the Qur'anic material about God as Creator are appropriate to use. The storyteller needs to develop some specific purpose for each story-telling that will enable it to be a vehicle for learning about Islam. In the example of the story of Moses, the Islamic practice of saying “God willing” and “in God's name” can be related to the idea that it is God who guides human life. The Islamic parallel between Moses, who received God's law, and Muhammad, whose message is about how God wants people to live, can be explored.

Few passages in Arabic philosophy have attracted as much attention as al-Ghazâlî's discussion of causality in the seventeenth discussion of Tahâfut al-Falsafa, along with the response of Ibn Rushd (Averroës) in his Tahâfut al-Tahâfut. A question often asked is to what extent al-Ghazâlî can be called an occasionalist; that is, whether he follows other Kalâm thinkers in restricting causal agency to God alone. What has not been thoroughly addressed in previous studies is a question which al-Ghazâlî and Ibn Rushd both see as decisive in the seventeenth discussion: what theory of causality is sufficient to explain human knowledge? In this paper I show that al-Ghazâlî's and Ibn Rushd's theories of causality are closely related to their epistemologies. The difference between the two thinkers can be briefly summerized as follows. For Ibn Rushd, the paradigm of human knowledge is demonstrative science; for al-Ghazâlî, in contrast, the paradigm of human knowledge is (or at least includes) revelation. Yet both remain committed to the possibility of Aristotelian science and its underlying principles. Thus, I suggest that al-Ghazâlî's stance in the seventeenth discussion sheds light on his critique of philosophy in the Tahâfut: namely, philosophy is not inherently incoherent, but simply limited in scope. I also briefly compare this position to that of Thomas Aquinas, in order to place the view in a more familiar context.

Previous work on the semiotics of Qur'anic narration is fairly sparse (cf. Hassanein, 2009b). In this paper I try to provide a semiotic analysis of the Qur'anic story Joseph and his Brothers, employing a model developed by Grambye and Sonne (2003a). The model draws heavily on the theories of structural-cognitive semiotics (Greimas, 1983; Brandt, 2004) and narratological terminology (Prince, 2003) and illustratively analyses the story's descriptive, narrative and argumentative propositional content, as well as enunciation, and discourse. The three facets of propositional content are examined in light of 3-D, transport, and thematic models, respectively. Enunciation and discourse are tested against enunciative and discursive models, respectively. The application of the general model offers a rich and insightful analysis of the story's text in a religious context, with particular focus placed on enunciation to serve a religious purpose. I find the model efficient in analysing narratives in a genre other than the folktale for which it was developed and I am thus recommending testing it against other narrative texts to figure out what it can further reveal.

The Qur’anic verses 18:60–82 in Surat al-Kahf present the story of Khi?r and Moses as a lesson on the modalities of being and of knowing. Traditionally, the story is seen from a variety of vantage points that include historical, textual, literary, and allegorical, each of which is framed differently depending on the religio-cultural context. This book, in addition to examining the theological sources, traces the story’s mythical, mystical, and popular interpretations engendered by the Qur’anic story. The author argues that the story’s major contribution is its ability to communicate the importance of cultivating humility—a fundamental goal for any person of faith. Despite his importance in the Qur’an, Moses is not the main hero in this story; instead, he is used to point to an even higher truth pertaining to the spiritual dimensions of faith. This book suggests that Khi?r’s Qur’anic story symbolizes these truths by providing a perspective on the tension between materiality and spirituality, the ?ahir (exoteric) and the ba?in (esoteric), and human and divine forms of knowledge. Additionally, in this work, the Khi?r narrative is viewed as a source of nourishment for theories that speak to the intersectionality between Islam and other religious traditions.

Religious translation contributes significantly to the development of translation as a subject. In the field of religious translation, the most frequently translated documents are sacred texts since sacred texts are central to a religion. However, due to complicated and sensitive cultural elements sacred texts contain, the translating processes of any sacred texts are filled with difficulties. To produce more adequate translation of sacred texts, the potential difficulties are ought to be studied and understood. This article will introduce the major difficulties in translating sacred texts and, briefly discuss current methods utilized in sacred text translation, and provide suggestions. Contents will be provided in the following order: reasons for translating sacred texts (introduction), linguistic difficulties in the sacred text translation, religious issues in the sacred text translation, current translation method of the sacred text, and conclusion with suggestions on the potential methods of sacred text translation depending on a translation’s target audiences.

Mohamed Imara, an Egyptian researcher and philosopher, explores the relationship between reason and revelation in his research, presenting a unique perspective that refutes the alleged contradiction between the two. Imara emphasizes that revelation itself calls for a believing reason. He highlights that the term "reason" and its various synonyms have been mentioned in the Quran, indicating the significance of reason in Islam. He believes that reason is a fundamental tool for understanding and interpreting religious texts. Furthermore, Imara sheds light on the role of believing reason in comprehending and applying texts across different eras. He believes that a believing mind can effectively employ texts in accordance with the present time, place, and circumstances while adhering to the core values and principles governing those texts. Moreover, Imara cites the opinions and writings of numerous scholars throughout history, such as Ibn Taymiyyah, Ibn Rushd, and Muhammad Abduh, to affirm the importance of rationality in Islam. These scholars have extensively examined the relationship between reason and revelation and emphasized the role of reason in Islamic thought. In summary, Mohamed Imara provides a detailed vision on his research regarding the relationship between reason and revelation. He highlights the central role of a believing intellect in the process of understanding and applying religious texts and the value of reason in Islamic thought. Using the perspectives of scholars from different eras, he confirms that the relationship between reason and revelation is harmonious and can be used in a way that is compatible with the fundamental principles of Islam.

CAHİLİYE DEVRİ ARAPLARINDA DİN ANLAYIŞI

Background/Context Research confirms that religion is a significant part of the lives of American youths, that religious texts are an essential part of their experiences in the world, and that as part of their everyday cultural practices, religious youths demonstrate strong commitments to reading religious texts. Currently, however, the field of literacy has yet to develop a body of research that examines the motivations that drive young people to engage with the religious texts that appear to mean so much to them. Focus of Study and Research Questions Situated within social and cultural perspectives of literacy and motivation, the purpose of this study is to examine religious youths’ personal motivations for reading complex, religious texts such as the Bible and the Book of Mormon by looking closely at the connections among their literacy practices, religious ideologies, and the expression of their religious identities. Two questions operationalize this purpose: 1. What are the similarities and differences among Latter-day Saint and Methodist youths’ personal motivations to engage with religious texts? 2. In what ways are these motivations influenced by the youths’ religiocultural traditions, ideologies, practices, and commitments. Research Design Qualitative methods were used to examine youths’ motivations for religious literacies. Nine months of ethnographic observations in multiple contexts and 59 in-depth, semi-structured interviews conducted over two years were transcribed and analyzed to address the purpose of the study. Analytic procedures were informed by grounded theory. Findings The findings revealed a broad-level framework that explained the youths’ personal motivations for reading religious texts that transcended religious affiliation. Youths in both congregations were motivated to engage with complex, religious texts because they providing them with (a) knowledge about their religious traditions, (b) tools for applying religious knowledge to the lives, (c) strength to endure life's challenges, (d) comfort during stressful times, and (e) a connection to God. Conclusions/Recommendations As a space to explore the interactions among religion, literacy, and motivation, this study contributes to a more robust understand about the manner in which young people engage with complex, religious texts. This research also has implications for conceptualizing motivated literacy, engaging students with complex, academic texts, and studying motivation for literacy as social practice.

The roots of the Roman Catholic Church’s efforts in interreligious dialogue over the past half-century rest in the work of a number of individuals, including that of the American Jesuit John Courtney Murray. Fr. Murray was among several whose views and writings on this question during the first half of the twentieth century were viewed with suspicion in some Roman Catholic circles, as they evidenced too much influence from democratic ideals and principles that were, in some cases, at odds with official Church teaching. Yet, during the Second Vatican Council (or Vatican II) held between 1963 and 1965, he and others saw their once suspect opinions incorporated into official Church teaching. This is an excellent example of how culture and belief often interact to bring about something new, something positive—an example of how patient perseverance, coupled with hope, can help bring about change. While major developments in interreligious dialogue have occurred over the past century, this is not to suggest that interactions between Roman Catholicism and nonChristian religions, and especially Islam, can only be traced to this period. It goes without saying that the West is highly indebted to many great Islamic thinkers such as Averroes (Ibn Rushd) and Avicenna (Ibn Sina)—to name only two—for their influence on and contributions to the world’s knowledge in such areas as medicine, philosophy, and mathematics. Indeed, the philosophical and theological writings of St. Thomas Aquinas, one of the greatest Roman Catholic thinkers, were deeply influenced by Islamic thought. When it came to an actual conversation or dialogue around specifically theological and religious issues, however, before the Second Vatican Council the dominant view within the Catholic tradition was that, while other religious traditions may have some element of truth to them, they were fundamentally erroneous. Consistent with this position, any notion of interreligious dialogue (not to mention religious freedom) on the part of the Catholic Church was a logical inconstancy. This view helped fuel intense missionary efforts to convert others to the Catholic faith, since all other faiths were thought to be untrue. In fairness, Roman Catholicism was not alone in this view. Although it might be articulated differently in other traditions, its effects are equally discernable. For example, the spread of Christianity, specifically Anglicanism, went hand-