Abstract
Fuel cells are a promising alternative to non-renewable energy production industries such as petroleum and natural gas. The cathodic oxygen reduction reaction (ORR), which makes fuel cell technology possible, is sluggish under normal conditions. Thus, catalysts must be used to allow fuel cells to operate efficiently. Traditionally, platinum (Pt) catalysts are often utilized as they exhibit a highly efficient ORR with low overpotential values. However, Pt is an expensive and precious metal, posing economic problems for commercialization. Herein, advances in carbon-based catalysts are reviewed for their application in ORRs due to their abundance and low-cost syntheses. Various synthetic methods from different renewable sources are presented, and their catalytic properties are compared. Likewise, the effects of heteroatom and non-precious metal doping, surface area, and porosity on their performance are investigated. Carbon-based support materials are discussed in relation to their physical properties and the subsequent effect on Pt ORR performance. Lastly, advances in fuel cell electrolytes for various fuel cell types are presented. This review aims to provide valuable insight into current challenges in fuel cell performance and how they can be overcome using carbon-based materials and next generation electrolytes.
Highlights
A key issue for American society is the disparity of the supply and the demand of energy sources
In order to avoid the rapid depletion of energy sources and continue towards a sustainable future, it is paramount that energy storage and conversion should primarily be performed by renewable means
The samples exhibited an oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) onset potential of −90 mV and a 4 e− mechanism, which was attributed to the large specific surface area (72–296 m2 g−1) and well-developed porosity, as well as the presence of a high concentration of zinc oxide (ZnO) particles embedded within the carbon matrix
Summary
A key issue for American society is the disparity of the supply and the demand of energy sources. The United States consumed 20.5 million barrels of petroleum per day (mbd) in 2020, which is significantly greater than the 16 mbd it produced [1] This disparity leads to the importation of more petroleum each year to supply the growing energy demand. NeMwaanbylerceanrebwoanbsleoucracrebsohnasvoeuarclseos bheaevne kanlsoowbneetno kconnotwainntvoacroionutasinhevtearroioautosmhes,tesruocahtoams s, nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and sulfur (S), which can play a vital role in electrocatalytic activity of their resultant activated carbons Their syntheses can be performed economically and with no harsh chemicals [16,22,24]. Current research works have focused on developing generation fuel cells by producing ORR catalysts from naturally abundant materials and waste which are less expensive compared to metal-based catalysts [16,25,26]. This section focuses on the recent use of these materials as carbon sources for highly efficient electrocatalysts
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