Rapoport effect in South American Carnivora (Mammalia): null models under geometric and phylogenetic constraints.

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Rapoport effect predicts that species geographic range sizes will increase toward higher latitudes, probably reflecting adaptations to extreme climatic conditions that increase species tolerance. Recently, studies about spatial patterns in species richness and geographic range size may be associated with the geometry of species' ranges. In this context, null models can be used to search for the causal mechanisms associated with these patterns. In this paper, we analyzed Rapoport effect using a null model to evaluate how phylogenetic structure and geometric constraints simultaneously affect latitudinal extents of 40 species of South American terrestrial Carnivora. The latitudinal extents of Carnivora tended to decrease toward Southern latitudes, in the opposite direction expected under a simple Rapoport effect, but in accordance to geometric expectations of position of midpoints in the continent. Using 5000 simulations, it was possible to show that the null regression coefficients of latitudinal extents against midpoints are positively biased, reflecting the geometric constraints in the latitudinal extents. The results were equivalent in phylogenetic and non-phylogenetic analyses. The observed regression coefficient was significantly smaller (line is less inclined) than expected by chance alone, demonstrating that the geometric constraints in the latitudinal extents exist even after controlling for phylogenetic structure in data using eigenvector regressions. This suggests that the "spirit" of Rapoport effect (sensu Lyons & Willig, 1997) could be maintained, i.e., that latitudinal extents in Southern region of the continent are relatively larger than those in Northern regions, even after controlling for phylogenetic effects.