Abstract
In the last decade, Time-of-Flight (ToF) range cameras have gained increasing popularity in robotics, automotive industry, and home entertainment. Despite technological developments, ToF cameras still suffer from error sources such as multipath interference or motion artifacts. Thus, simulation of ToF cameras, including these artifacts, is important to improve camera and algorithm development. This paper presents a physically-based, interactive simulation technique for amplitude modulated continuous wave (AMCW) ToF cameras, which, among other error sources, includes single bounce indirect multipath interference based on an enhanced image-space approach. The simulation accounts for physical units down to the charge level accumulated in sensor pixels. Furthermore, we present the first quantified comparison for ToF camera simulators. We present bidirectional reference distribution function (BRDF) measurements for selected, purchasable materials in the near-infrared (NIR) range, craft real and synthetic scenes out of these materials and quantitatively compare the range sensor data.
Highlights
Amplitude modulated continuous wave Time-of-Flight (AMCW-ToF) depth sensors provide per-pixel distance information by estimating the phase shift of a received amplitude modulated light signal that has been emitted by an active light source using a reference signal [1]
We present the results related to the bidirectional reference distribution function (BRDF) measurement for standard materials (Section 5.1) and the evaluation of the multipath interference using the proposed simulation technique (Section 5.2)
We present an enhancement of a physically-based simulation technique for amplitude modulated continuous wave (AMCW) ToF
Summary
Amplitude modulated continuous wave Time-of-Flight (AMCW-ToF) depth sensors provide per-pixel distance information by estimating the phase shift of a received amplitude modulated light signal that has been emitted by an active light source using a reference signal [1]. There is very little research in providing quantitative comparison to real-world measurements, which is indispensable to reliably predict the behavior of prospective AMCW ToF cameras and their application. Such a comparison needs to take real scene material properties into account, typically provided by BRDF measurements. This paper presents evaluation approaches for ToF simulations based on data captured by real cameras with the following contributions: Measurement of isotropic BRDF at 850 nm wavelength for several specified materials that can be purchased worldwide and can be used to reproduce scenes reliably. Quantitative evaluations of the proposed simulator based on AMCW ToF camera acquisition of real-world reference scenes. BRDF data including references to material vendors, geometry of the reference scenes, and real AMCW ToF camera measurements, in order to promote further activities in quantitative evaluation of AMCW ToF simulation
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