Pure carbon-based electrodes for metal-ion batteries

Abstract

The development of large-scale energy storage systems is required to complement the growing energy supply from renewable energy sources. Electrochemical energy storage technology appears to be at the forefront and should be comprised of efficient, low-cost, and environmentally friendly components. Carbon-based electrode materials have been widely explored for a vast range of applicability most especially in electrochemical storage applications because of their excellent properties such as capacity, energy density, and power density. This review not only attempts to discuss carbon-based electrode materials and the governing mechanisms to the ion storage of different metal-ion batteries (Li, Na, K, Mg, Ca, and Al) but also summarizes the recent progress in using different carbon-based materials together with their electrochemical performance. The critical challenges, as well as the perspects for the future use of carbon-based electrodes in metal-ion batteries, are also examined.