Properties of the PHase-Alternating Phase-Shift (PHAPS) multiple spin-echo protocol in MRI: A study of the effects of imperfect RF pulses

Abstract

The effects of imperfect radiofrequency (FR) pulses on the echo amplitudes from the Carr-Purcell (CP), Carr-Purcell-Meiboom-Gill (CPMG), and the PHase-Alternating Phase-Shift (PHAPS; combination of CP and CPMG) multiple spin-echo schemes were studied. Properties of the PHAPS scheme for transverse relaxation time measurements was emphasized. Numerical simulations on non-relaxing spin systems were performed to assess the properties of selective (damped sinc shaped) and nonselective refocusing pulses in terms of effective spatial selectivity and generation of secondary echo signal. Analytical solutions of the Bloch equations were applied to study the generation and propagation of stimulated echo signal caused by nonideal 180° phase reversals, and the results were used to analyse the numerical simulations in terms of primary and stimulated echo components. Finally, the simulated echo train patterns from the different MSE schemes were compared with MR imaging measurements. It was found that the underestimation of T 2 values by the PHAPS protocol with selective refocusing pulses is mainly an effect of an “artificial” echo amplitude decay in the CP scheme, while the CPMG scheme produces a typical even-odd echo pattern (different from corresponding echo patterns in conventional high resolution NMR). Both effects are related to the flip angle error and phase dispersion along the slice selection direction from selective RF pulses, and are not significantly influenced by stimulated echo interference for nonrelaxing spin systems. However, the presence of stimulated echoes at the time of the primary echoes implies a dependence on T 1 of the PHAPS echo amplitudes. In the CPMG protocol, different gradient schemes have been implemented to defocus stimulated echoes. However, the results indicate that there exists stimulated components that will not be affected by such gradients, and that the optimization of the RF refocusing pulses then remain the main objective.