Process-induced microstructural variations in laser powder bed fusion of novel titanium alloys: A comprehensive study on volumetric energy density and alloying effects

Abstract

This study explores the effect of in-situ alloying and volumetric energy density (VED) on the microstructure of Laser Powder Bed Fusion (L-PBF) fabricated Ti alloys. Pure Ti, Ti–5Cu, and Ti–5Cu–1Si (wt%) samples were printed using elemental powders with varying VEDs. This study investigates the influence of VED and Cu/Si additions on the growth restriction factor (Q) and columnar-to-equiaxed transition of the β phase. Pure Ti samples exhibited coarse, prior columnar β grains with an average diameter of 106 μm, and a grain shape factor greater than 3.0. In contrast, both Ti–Cu and Ti–Cu–Si samples displayed a significant fraction of equiaxed prior β grains with a near-spherical morphology. Additionally, Cu/Si addition refined the prior β columnar grains, reducing their average diameter to 37 μm and 25 μm in Ti–Cu and Ti–Cu–Si, respectively. Furthermore, the study reveals a strong dependence of microstructure on VED in the Ti–5Cu–1Si alloy. Higher VED promotes a more uniform distribution of solute elements and a lower thermal gradient, resulting in finer equiaxed β grains with an average diameter of 4.9 μm, compared to samples printed at lower VEDs. The addition of Cu and Si also significantly refined the lath-like α phase and decreased the c/a ratio of the Ti HCP lattice, introducing lattice microstrains in the Ti–Cu and Ti–Cu–Si alloys. These findings demonstrate the potential of in-situ alloying and VED optimization for tailoring microstructures in novel Ti alloys fabricated via L-PBF, paving the way for achieving superior mechanical properties.