Predictive Mechanisms Are Not Involved the Same Way during Human-Human vs. Human-Machine Interactions: A Review.

Aïsha Sahaï,Bruno Berberian,Ouriel Grynszpan,Elisabeth Pacherie

doi:10.3389/fnbot.2017.00052

Abstract

Nowadays, interactions with others do not only involve human peers but also automated systems. Many studies suggest that the motor predictive systems that are engaged during action execution are also involved during joint actions with peers and during other human generated action observation. Indeed, the comparator model hypothesis suggests that the comparison between a predicted state and an estimated real state enables motor control, and by a similar functioning, understanding and anticipating observed actions. Such a mechanism allows making predictions about an ongoing action, and is essential to action regulation, especially during joint actions with peers. Interestingly, the same comparison process has been shown to be involved in the construction of an individual's sense of agency, both for self-generated and observed other human generated actions. However, the implication of such predictive mechanisms during interactions with machines is not consensual, probably due to the high heterogeneousness of the automata used in the experimentations, from very simplistic devices to full humanoid robots. The discrepancies that are observed during human/machine interactions could arise from the absence of action/observation matching abilities when interacting with traditional low-level automata. Consistently, the difficulties to build a joint agency with this kind of machines could stem from the same problem. In this context, we aim to review the studies investigating predictive mechanisms during social interactions with humans and with automated artificial systems. We will start by presenting human data that show the involvement of predictions in action control and in the sense of agency during social interactions. Thereafter, we will confront this literature with data from the robotic field. Finally, we will address the upcoming issues in the field of robotics related to automated systems aimed at acting as collaborative agents.

Highlights

Human beings are intentional agents in the sense that their behaviors do not solely consist in reacting to external stimulations and in deliberately acting to reshape their environment
Predictive mechanisms are involved in action control and in the sense of agency (Blakemore et al, 2002; Synofzik et al, 2008)
Empirical data tend to show that predictions allow better coordination with human peers in joint actions and support action understanding of observed agents (Manera et al, 2011)

Summary

Introduction

Human beings are intentional agents in the sense that their behaviors do not solely consist in reacting to external stimulations and in deliberately acting to reshape their environment. Cooperative tasks between humans and machines tend to gain ground as machines make tasks less demanding for the human operator and yield an increase in productivity (Kaber et al, 2000) This can cost human mastery, with difficulties in understanding and coordinating with artificial systems (Sarter and Woods, 1995; Billings, 1997; Sarter et al, 1997). It has been shown that the neurons of F5 area and the parietal cortex (the so-called “mirror neurons”) of the monkey could fire both when executing a goal-directed action and when observing the very same action performed by another individual (Keysers et al, 2003; Fogassi et al, 2005). Prediction plays a fundamental role in understanding observed actions performed by conspecifics and in action coordination during joint actions with them

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