Precursor screening of fruit shell derived hard carbons for low-potential sodium storage: A low lignin content supports the formation of closed pores

Abstract

Biomass hard carbons are being explored for anode materials of sodium-ion batteries due to the wide availability. However, the precursor screening for optimal microstructure and sodium storage performance is tedious and time-consuming. Here, we selected three kinds of fruit shells to prepare hard carbons for sodium-ion batteries and investigated their structure characteristics and sodium storage performance. It is demonstrated that a low lignin content in fruit shells is favor to the formation of closed pores in the derived hard carbons, thus generating a high low-potential plateau capacity. Among the main component of biomass, lignin with rich aromatic ring structure possesses higher thermal stability than cellulose and hemicellulose. During the pyrolysis and carbonization, lignin may decompose to large-size crystalline domains, which hinders the random stacking of carbon layers. Therefore, as the lower lignin content than pine nut shell and macadamia nut shell (28.4% vs. 39.2% and 37.4%), the walnut shell derived hard carbon shows a largest interlayer distance of 0.397 nm and a highest closed pore area of 391 m2 g−1, contributing to the supreme specific capacity of 362.6 mAh g−1, with a plateau capacity of 195.8 mAh g−1 as well as a remarkable cycle stability. The assembled WNSC//NVP full-cell remains a discharge capacity of 53.1 mAh g−1 after 100 cycles at 0.1 A g−1. This work gives a deep insight of the relationship between biomass composition and microstructure of the derived hard carbons to explore its high sodium storage ability in low-potential region.