Abstract
The number of patients afflicted by type 2 diabetes and its morbidities has increased alarmingly, becoming the cause of many deaths. Normally, during nutrient intake, insulin secretion is increased and glucagon secretion is repressed, but when plasma glucose concentration increases, a state of prediabetes occurs. High concentration of plasma glucose breaks the redox balance, inducing an oxidative stress that promotes chronic inflammation, insulin resistance, and impaired insulin secretion. In the same context, obesity is one of the most crucial factors inducing insulin resistance, inflammation, and contributing to the onset of type 2 diabetes. Measurements of metabolites like glucose, fructose, amino acids, and lipids exhibit significant predictive associations with type 2 diabetes or a prediabetes state and lead to changes in plasma metabolites that could be selectively affected by gender and age. In terms of gender, women and men have biological dissimilarities that might have an important role for the development, diagnosis, therapy, and prevention of type 2 diabetes, obesity, and relevant hazards in both genders, for type 2 diabetes. Therefore, the present review attempts to analyze the influence of gender on the relationships among inflammatory events, oxidative stress, and metabolic alterations in patients undergoing obesity and/or type 2 diabetes.
Highlights
The most prominent causes of death in groups of patients with obesity are cardiovascular and cerebrovascular complications, such as infarction and stroke [1] because of an increase in adipose tissue, which is metabolically active, and the malfunction of leptin signaling which has been associated with the atherosclerotic process [2]
Post-menopausal women have augmented lymphocyte and monocyte counts and enhanced expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines. These results suggest that estrogens influence insulin resistance [85]; in addition, insulin resistance can promote the appearance of metabolic syndrome and, eventually, of type 2 diabetes
It is likely that the initial trigger of metabolic inflammation is the disruption of energy homeostasis produced by a positive energy balance and, the initial response tries to relieve the anabolic pressure produced by obesity
Summary
The most prominent causes of death in groups of patients with obesity are cardiovascular and cerebrovascular complications, such as infarction and stroke [1] because of an increase in adipose tissue, which is metabolically active, and the malfunction of leptin signaling which has been associated with the atherosclerotic process [2]. Metabolomics metabolic features interaction studies have expanded the current literature, strengthening sample, including low-molecular-weight biochemical compounds such as organic acids, the knowledge of the lipids, pathophysiological pathways type 2 diabetes, andcorrelations have amino acids, sugars, and nucleotides [15],underlying has been utilized to assess allowed the identification novel and reliable that [16]. We ular, we tried to analyze the2influence of gender will discuss firstly the relations of obesity with inflammatory states and with insulin resistance in Sections 2 and 3, to focus on oxidative stress, type 2 diabetes, and a putative influence of gender (Section 4) to comment on interactions of inflammation and metabolic regulation in type 2 diabetes (Section 5).
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