Patterns of female social relationships in a primate with female-biased dispersal

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In socially living mammals, females often form highly differentiated and stable social relationships, commonly with genetically related individuals, which leads to social clusters within groups (i.e. matrilines). However, in primates, research on female social relationships commonly focuses on species and populations with female philopatry and the frequent occurrence of affiliative and agonistic behaviours. Therefore, our aim was to investigate the long-term patterns of female social relationships in a primate with female-biased dispersal, where affiliative and agonistic behaviours among females are rare. We analysed 9 years of continuous data from female Ugandan red colobus monkeys, Piliocolobus tephrosceles , in Kibale National Park, Uganda, and used spatial proximity to establish social networks for 3- and 6-month periods. Then, we investigated the differentiation, stability and clustering of social relationships for each of these periods using several approaches. As expected for a primate with female-biased dispersal, our results largely confirmed the absence of temporally stable social relationships and social clusters within the group. However, in about half of the analysed time periods, females formed differentiated social relationships. This indicates that factors other than dispersal patterns and within-group contest competition contribute to the formation of the ephemeral relationships, as measured by spatial proximity, among female red colobus. Therefore, our results on the patterns of female social relationships in a primate with female-biased dispersal provide important empirical insight for the refinements of theories that aim to explain social evolution in mammals. • We analysed female social relationships over 9 years in a female-dispersed primate. • Females formed differentiated relationships during half of the analysed periods. • There was little indication for temporally stable relationships among females. • Females did not form social clusters often observed in primates with matrilines.